EVALUATING THE BENEFITS OF BROADCASTING IN IMPROVING ADULT LITERACY IN LAGOS STATE

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Literature Review
• Theoretical Framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Broadcasting

Broadcasting is the distribution of audio or video content to a dispersed audience via any electronic mass communications medium, but typically one using the electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves), in a one-to-many model. Broadcasting began with AM radio, which came into popular use around 1920 with the spread of vacuum tuberadio transmitters and receivers. Before this, all forms of electronic communication (early radio, telephone, and telegraph) were one-to-one, with the message intended for a single recipient. The term broadcasting evolved from its use as the agricultural method of sowing seeds in a field by casting them broadly about. It was later adopted for describing the widespread distribution of information by printed materials or by telegraph.[5] Examples applying it to "one-to-many" radio transmissions of an individual station to multiple listeners appeared as early as 1898.

Over the air broadcasting is usually associated with radio and television, though in recent years, both radio and television transmissions have begun to be distributed by cable (cable television). The receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively small subset; the point is that anyone with the appropriate receiving technology and equipment (e.g., a radio or television set) can receive the signal. The field of broadcasting includes both government-managed services such as public radio, community radio and public television, and private commercial radio and commercial television. The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, part 97 defines "broadcasting" as "transmissions intended for reception by the general public, either direct or relayed". Private or two-way telecommunications transmissions do not qualify under this definition. For example, amateur ("ham") and citizens band (CB) radio operators are not allowed to broadcast. As defined, "transmitting" and "broadcasting" are not the same.

Transmission of radio and television programs from a radio or television station to home receivers by radio waves is referred to as "over the air" (OTA) or terrestrial broadcasting and in most countries requires a broadcasting license. Transmissions using a wire or cable, like cable television (which also retransmits OTA stations with their consent), are also considered broadcasts but do not necessarily require a license (though in some countries, a license is required). In the 2000s, transmissions of television and radio programs via streaming digital technology have increasingly been referred to as broadcasting as well.

Educational Technology

In functional and operational terms, education has been defined as the process which draws the best in the child with the aim of producing well balanced personalities, culturally refined, emotionally stable, ethically sound, mentally alert, morally upright, physically strong, socially efficient, spiritually upright, vocationally self-sufficient and internationally liberal.(Aggarwal 2004).On the other hand technology is conceived at two levels, and at times a combination of the two: for some, technology means equipment, gadgets, tools instruments and products, which result from the application of scientific inventions/innovations.

As a process, technology refers to the application of scientifically gathered knowledge to practical problems. It involves the systematic application of knowledge to the solution of problems. When technology is deplored to tackle the education problems; a mixture of the products and process of technology are often call to service. (National Teachers’ Institute 2004)

Broadcasting and Educational Broadcasting in Perspectives

The concept of broadcasting needs to be examined critically and be put in proper perspective. There is tendency to mix-up what constitutes broadcasting and related concepts such as electronic media; audio-visual media et cetera.

According to La’aro, (2004 p1.), the term Broadcasting refers to the totality of the communication and technological process which allows for the transmission of audio-visual signals to a large, heterogeneous mass of people, simultaneously. The term broadcasting, if properly used, does not include closed circuit, computer, home video and even cable television, or other forms of radio transmission that cannot offer, on their own, possibilities of reaching diverse audience simultaneously

The characteristics of broadcast media that differentiate them to similar electronic media are the ability of the media to distribute their signal to several audiences who are located at different places and locations at the same time.

The import of the above exposition of broadcasting to other form of electronic communication is especially discernible in the context of educational broadcasting. Devices, such as television box, video recording and audio recording equipment are used in the teaching and learning process. These are not broadcasting. At best, they can be classified under the terms Audio-Visuals.

Aggarwal (2004:153) cited some authors who have defined the audio-visual devices used in educational context. Among the many authors are:

Edgar Dale who says Audio-Visuals are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped.

But Kunder, S. James would rather defined Audio-Visuals as any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.

In the view of Mcknown and Roberts:Audio-Visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher, through the utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify; establish and correlate concepts, interpretations and appreciations.

The above views enunciate the role common to all electronic media in the education process but which the broadcast media further intensify due to certain peculiarities.

Broadcasting media {Radio and Television services} are mass media with peculiar characteristics. The broadcast media have immediacy capabilities by presenting information or event at the same time it is unfolding. Their messages reach far-flung audience that is not spatially connected. The message of the broadcast media is the only connecting cord binding them with their audience in a communication experience. The broadcast media have universal value because they can break the barrier of literacy and social class. Their signals do not discriminate on the basis of socio-economic and educational background.

This potentials informed the conceptualization of broadcasting in the context of education which the following passage expatiates

Types of Educational Broadcasting

The concept of educational broadcasting denotes the process by which broadcast – Radio and Television – media are used to achieve the objectives of formal, informal and non-formal type of education.

Educational broadcasting can be understood from the perspectives of channels of communication that can carry information; facts and figures that are meant to fulfill instructional objectives. It means vehicle and means that enable you to acquire knowledge.

Educational broadcasting can be viewed from four different modes/types of education viz:

1. Formal Educational Broadcasting

2. Non-formal Educational Broadcasting

3. Informal Educational Broadcasting

4. Mobilization Educational Broadcasting

Formal Educational Broadcasting:- deals with the use of broadcast media for instructional objectives that conform with the characteristics of formal education – a formal syllabus, rigid grade system, formal school hours, formal certificates, et cetera. This is the focus and concern of this paper as it affects the tertiary institutions.

Non-formal Educational Broadcast:-Here the resources (human and material) of radio and television services are used to achieve the skills needs of adult without removing them from their work-day routines. It involves the acquisition of functional knowledge that is relevant to the adult social/working functions.

Informal Educational Broadcasting:- refers to daily encounter with radio and television programmes that help individual to acquire knowledge; although the individual did not set out to acquire it but through daily experience with broadcasting. It is in this sense that broadcast houses claim to be educating their audience. The format may come in different-pattern, for example, news, drama, discussion programmes, et cetera.

Mobilization Educational Broadcasting:- These are the deliberately planned broadcast messages designed to motivate, persuade, discourage, urge,(or with similar behavioural objectives) the general public to behave in particular, desired ways. It is about getting people to agree to the point of view of the sponsor.The format may be in Jingles; especially composed lyrics or any other broadcast programme format.

All the four modes can be used for different level of education, but this paper intends to explore the formal educational broadcasting for curriculum delivery at the tertiary level of education. How visible and relevant to curriculum content delivery?.

Educational Broadcasting Strategy

The strategy employed in using the facilities of broadcasting to foster the objectives of education is varied depending on the type of education under focus. Generally, the strategy can be grouped under the following headings:

Substitute for Teachers

Broadcast media facilities are used for classroom teaching. It is called direct classroom teaching or total teaching. This is employed where there are large pupils but fewer teachers.The condition in our tertiary institutions, where teachers face hundreds of students call for the consideration of these educational broadcasting strategies to tackle the problem.

Supplementary/Enrichment Role

This is using broadcasting to supplement the effort of the teachers/lecturers. Radio and television programmes, in this instance, are designed in accordance with the curriculum content of particular courses.The scheduling of the broadcasting programme will be based on research findings concerning the time use pattern of the target audience. The teacher/lecturer would then direct the attention of the students to the programme as enriching or supplementing what has been discussed in normal classroom setting. For optimal utilization of the programme the lecturer must impress it on student the relevance of the programme to their academic performance.

Distant Learning

The broadcast media are used basically as part of the distance learning arrangement to reach student in the comfort of their homes or residents. This is totally dependent on the effectiveness of the operational arrangement. It is opened to enormous operational and environment challenges that may be daunting indeed.

The foregoing strategies/approaches can be summarized thus:

1. The Teaching Approach: Here the broadcast media are considered as educational instrument in their own right, and not just a mere adjunct to the classroom teacher, that is, the media are substitute classroom teachers. This approach is favourable to correspondence studies, Extra-Mural Studies and adult education.

2. The Support Approach: Here, the media are used to provide additional teaching resources to enrich, complement and support the teaching-learning process; resources which the existing educational establishment cannot readily provide through its traditional facilities and materials. This approach can be used to support regular schools like the higher institutions.

Benefits of Involving Broadcasting In Formal Education

The potential of using broadcasting media facilities in the efforts to engage the contemporary challenges of effective curriculum delivery in tertiary institutions can be seen in the following:

· It is economical: It allows the maximum use of limited resources to convey knowledge. Just one teacher to teach millions of students simultaneously, nationwide.

· It helps give subjects a greater sense of reality. You can capture and relay actualities and real life experiences with audio-visual equipment rather than just telling or describe them to your students.

· You can get a close-up perspective of the subject, especially when it involves some kind of specimen.

· Broadcasting allows flexibility of timing to adapt to the daily lifestyle of the student so that lessons can come at a time when students will be ready.

The Nigerian Experience in Educational Broadcasting

The Nigerian broadcasting system, right from the earlier days, has had pretence to educational service, although the kind that was on then was the informal and mobilization types Even the Nationalist who supplanted the colonialist could not be faithful to their publicly declared intension of using broadcast facilities for education purposes At best, their idea and practice of educational broadcasting was the mobilization type that are geared toward motivating the populace. The wave of educational television then was linked to national renaissance. In the context of African struggle then, mobilization was educational.

By 1954, it was realized that broadcasting can be used for intensive – formal-educational purposes. A pilot was done by the Western Nigeria Broadcasting Service (WNBS) under the supervision of one Tom Chalmers. The experiment was on subject lessons to schools in Lagos area.It was then discovered that “Schools broadcasting … could be of great use in stimulating and helping teachers and pupils alike … could quicken the tempo of educational advance in Nigeria.”{Adisa 2001 et al} This realization leads the British Government to second Richmond Postage to Nigeria to study the possibility of starting school broadcasting in Nigeria. He was instructed to report to the Federal adviser on education “a comprehensive programme on broadcasting on English and the main vernacular at primary and secondary school levels with particular reference to “regional needs.” {Uche 1987}

Postgate, in 1955, in his report recommends school broadcast. He also suggested that school broadcasting should be collaboration between National Broadcasting Service{NBS} and educational authorities.The role he envisaged for the NBS are (1) set up the broadcasting machinery (2) Recruit broadcaster, script writer and performers (3) help in training teachers in the use of broadcast.

The role for educational authorities is to:

(1) Ensure that inspectors and teachers receive proper training to use broadcasting.

(2) Determine the content of syllabus of the subject to be taught.

The Postage report could not be implemented by the Federal Government due to lack of money. But the Northern government, in May 1957 began School Broadcasting on Radio with a programme on English Language for primary school. The Western Regional government followed in the same year. {Moemeka 1981 Adisa, Uche Ibid}

The Present Reality

In spite of the set back experienced in the attempt at using broadcast facilities for formal educational objectives; there have always been insistence on resuscitating the concept. In the early 80s many state broadcasting stations produced educational programmes on radio and television that were fashioned after the schools’ curriculum. For example, Radio O. Y. O in Ikeja, Lagos State, had on air “Tam-Mo” an inter-school quiz programme based on the syllabus for the teaching of Yoruba Language and Literature in Secondary Schools.

The Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, operator of “Radio Nigeria” produced many programmes that are based on the books produced by the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) or other materials recommended by the council. The target audience for such broadcasts are Junior Secondary School, Senior Secondary Students and Primary School; teachers, especially the pivotal category. The objectives are the reinforcement and consolidation of what the children have been taught in classroom and to refresh the minds of the teachers so targeted.

The Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) had made contribution to educational broadcasting. Some of the examples include: Cartoon programmes of all shades; Speak-Out, Talk French, Kid-vision, Story land, Tales by Moonlight, Flying High, Work-it-Out, et cetera.

Equally, privately owned Radio and Television stations too have been airing some porgrammes which are tagged educational programme. Examples are Brainy Bright (Debate) Scrap Palace (Arts and Crafts); all these were once aired on African Independent Television AIT.

Examples from Radio are Students Millennium on Cool FM in Lagos, Ayoka on Radio Kwara.

Vital Observations of Educational and Educative Programme

From the foregoing review of the concept and practice of educational broadcasting, it is noticeable that there is need for some clarifications. There seems to be a misconception of what constitute educative programme and educational programme. Aluma (1998) quoting Ignacy Wanievics notes that the distinction between the two forms of programming lies on the purpose and effects of these programmes.

Any programme, in any form, could be considered as educative if its primary purpose is not to provide pure entertainment, political propaganda or commercial advertising, but rather to broaden horizons, deepen understanding and sensitivity, refine tastes, and so on … programmes which have definite enlightening values, but are not instructional, that is, are not planned to provide education in a systematic way.

Following this distinction, the following characteristics are identified for programme that will qualify as educational broadcasting (Adisa: 2001)

(a) Programmes concerned with supervised education, leading through examinations to credits towards the attainment of a particular educational level or degree, and requiring their audience to be registered or enrolled in a course of instruction.

(b) Programmes not connected with a system of formal or supervised education, but whose educational nature will be judged by their objective to [1] provide a continuity of content aimed at a systemic acquisition or improvement of knowledge or skills within a given circumscribed field of interest, [2] would bringing insight and awareness or vocational training, arousing and developing aesthetic responsiveness or remedial education connected with urgent economic and social problems.

Educational Broadcasting And Tertiary Level Of Education

The application of broadcasting to educational objectives, particularly for formal types of education, has largely, if not exclusively, being at the primary and secondary level. Yet a cursory look at the nature and potentials of broadcasting in the education process, does not suggest inapplicability of the concept and practice of educational broadcasting at the tertiary level of education.

The Nigeria Universities and Polytechnics, are currently ravaged by a number of challenges, some of which the concept of educational broadcasting can be explored to tackle. It is common knowledge that our Polytechnics and Universities are finding it difficult to cope with high admission rates. The classroom now burst at the seam, the laboratory is not adequately equipped, yet teachers are expected to demonstrate objects or concepts, concretely to a large number of students. Even the intrepid policy of consolidation of polytechnic and colleges of education into universities, does not promise reduction in population.

At the liberal and humanities classes; the large number of students constitutes a daunting challenges even to the most skilful and hardworking lecturer. Skill based courses which require in-depth teaching and constant practices suffer because lecturer can not impart meaningful knowledge to a large number of students just within the usual two hours lecture time-table per week.

The supplementary and complementary strategies of educational broadcasting can be deployed to tackle these challenges.

For what the broadcast media can do in the instructional purposes, {Aggarwal, 2004 193) summarized thus: According to him educational broadcasting;

v Permits the use of the best available teacher to teach a subject for a large number of student viewers. It preserves the expert teaching skills of such teachers on video tape or film for later use.

v Provides a common experience to all students when they all see the same basic ideas or techniques on television.

v Provides technical advantages not readily available in normal classrooms for illustration or demonstration.

v Makes possible close-up (TV) magnification of small objects, components, intricate mechanisms, diagram, et cetera, giving students a “front-row-seat.”

All these are possible for students within the comfort of their home.

2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Nkwam-Uwaoma & Onu (2017) opined that educational contents were enshrined in the inception of television broadcasting in Nigeria. This has remained an important part of the Nigerian television broadcasting. The Nigerian Television Authority inherited this as part of its public services. Hence, educational broadcasting is one of the objectives of the NTA. Educational broadcasting entails using the broadcast media in educating the masses and complementing the educational sector in its curriculum which covers day-care up to University level. The broadcast media, according to Babalola (2012), has been used as a catalyst in propagating education for easier understanding and comprehension among both students and those who were not opportune to partake in formal education. Broadcast media in propagating education packages good and retentive programmes with which to aid the presumed student listeners/viewers in their studies and as well inform them properly. The informative and educative functions of the broadcast media are a crucial development for developing and changing the society, so broadcast media organise educational programmes, properly planned with every requisite detail that will attract and retain the attention of its viewers/listeners (Nwabueze, 2014).

An interview done on broadcast media in Ikeja including: IBC Orient FM and TV; NTA Owerri; Hot FM; Zanders FM, Megaband FM shows that there are specific programmes, which were included in their programme schedule that tend to educate the populace and students on: health, entrepreneurship, child rights, fundamental human right, security measures, debates, politics, students participation, international updates (current happenings), brain puzzles (teasers), youths as leaders of tomorrow, exercise measures, healthy living, citizenship education, proper pronunciation (phonics) and spellings, educative drama, cartoons, movies, etc. and all other necessary information that concern the students and the measures to take to be guided properly.

The implication of these programmes is that students and the entire populace can access any needed information at their beck and call. In Developed and developing countries, students need not to bother on their homework because the broadcast media there has programmes that are strictly in line with students’ scheme of work and curriculum, so as to aid the students to understand, retain better and learn in a stress free and conducive learning environment (Field survey, 2018). The challenges perceived to have caused this low level of educational broadcasting is basically Fund; the necessary funds that when accessed can bring out quality and professionalism in the planned educational programmes that will complement class work. Another challenge is on the part of the government, lots of bills were enacted on education yet these funds are being delayed unnecessarily. Recommendations were made by the government to establish community/campus media in all communities/institutions in Nigeria, but this proved abortive (Konkwo, 2012).

Usha Vyasulu Reddi (2003) conducted a study on educational broadcasting in the Common Wealth with special reference to educational television; it was revealed that audio- visual media is one of the fastest growing sectors in the world today; it is backed up by technological progress, especially the ICTs and digitalisation and consumers worldwide have access to a multiplicity of entertainment and information channels. Through the invention of new technologies, the government of the nation can no longer control the entry of foreign contents into their country. Similarly, Adegbija, Fakomogbon & Adebayo (2013) in their study entitled ‘role of broadcast media for instructional delivery in open and distance learning; Nigeria as a case study.’ It was observed that as a result of rapid exponential technological development across the globe, many radio and television broadcast equipment and facilities are rapidly being replaced to conform to the digital age. In a related study by Agbamuche (2015) entitled use of electronic media in educational system; findings showed that there are two ends of any e-media based education: the source and the receiver. Nord (2015) carried out a study on teaching in a digital age: Understanding technology in education, which they argued that it is appropriate to recognise that the predominant top-line effect of television viewing on academic achievement appears to be negative. In terms of viewing content, there is a clear differentiation between educational and entertainment material. The research suggests that viewing educational content can lead to positive achievement effects whereas viewing entertainment content yields a negative (or no) effect on achievement. Educational programmes may also increase students’ motivation to read, knowledge of subject domains and problem solving in mathematics and science. Interestingly, this content effect may vary with age, with relatively stronger effects for younger children receiving high quality content (Schmidt & Vandewater, 2008).

Another related study by Mahreen Hasan (2010) entitled mass media's impact on educational outcomes on developing countries: Evidence from Pakistan, showed that children in households with access to mass media obtained slightly lower knowledge scores. Tahir & Busha Shafi (2015) that the media play a pivotal role in disseminating knowledge to the masses as it works as catalyst in upbringing and brings the latest information to the society at large. Orole (2014) argued that in addition to formal education, the non-formal education and lifelong learning through the media can be a catalyst of information in a communication relationship between the transmitter and the receiver.

2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study was anchored on the information processing theory. Brown (2015) posits that the information processing theory approach is based on the idea that humans process information they receive instead of simply responding to external stimuli. According to the theory, the mind is often compared to a computer. The computer, like mind, analyses information and determines how the information will be stored. There are three components of the information processing theory: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Sensory memory is all of the things that you experience through your five senses: hearing, vision, taste, smell and touch. The capacity of sensory memory is about four items and the duration is limited to 0.5 to 3 seconds. Short-term memory, also called working memory, is the temporary storage, lasts about 15-30 seconds, holds about 7 items of information and includes the thinking part of applying what come out of the sensory memory. Long-term memory is memory that can be accessed at a later time, is long lasting and can hold infinite information.

Humans need to do something with new information; so they store this information in their brains so that they can recall it when needed. They create a similar pathway so as to make sure their brain knows not to discard the newly learned information. This process is called encoding. It is very important to keep cognitive load in mind when trying to learn, recall and remember new information. This theory is relevant because it looks at how people view their environment, how they put that information into memory, and how they retrieve that information later on. The mind processes the information passed through the broadcast media to be meaningful and comprehensive, allowing the audience to practically learn the information passed thereby increasing learning.