REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Many studies have been carried out on agricultural production, marketing and distribution of agricultural products. In this section, the following aspects that are relevant to rice production and marketing are reviewed: rice production systems, concept of agricultural marketing; rice processing, storage, marketing and distribution; marketing margins and costs; marketing functions; marketing channels and agencies; and market structure and conduct.

2.1 Rice Production Systems

Rice farming systems, according to Dey (1984), form one or more subsystems within a larger farming system, which includes the full set of crops and livestock produced in a particular ecological region by a particular socioeconomic group. Rice is a semi-aquatic plant. Its range of environmental tolerance extends to the wet parts of the landscape where other cereals fail (IRRI, 1976). Towards the dry side of such environmental conditions, rice is much less tolerance of low soil moisture than other cereals, thus strictly limiting its production to land where water is not in short supply during part or all of the growth cycle.

There are basically two types of rice farming systems, according to the availability of water, namely, upland rice and wet paddy or swamp rice. In the wet paddy system, FAO (1970) stated that rice is grown on land covered with water for most of the year. Such lands are located along the banks of rivers and streams or in low land plans covered most of the year with water from a dam (irrigation). To get good yields from wet paddy (swamp rice), the farmer must be in control of the water, ensuring the right depth of water at different stages of growth of the rice crop.

The field operation carried out in wet paddy, according to WARDA (1981), include nursery preparations, which consists of tillage, leveling and broadcasting of the seeds. The next operation, which is transplanting, is done 30 days after planting the nursery, according to FAO (1970). Maintenance of the permanent field include weeding, fertilizer application, bird scaring and finally at maturity, harvesting.

Upland rice refers to rice grown on both flat and sloping fields that are not bonded, that are prepared and seeded under dry conditions, and that depend on rainfall for moisture (IRRI, 1975). The seeds are sown directly to the field. According to FAO (1970), the field is better cleared and filled at the beginning of the rainy season so that the soil holds the water. It further recommended that sowing should be done using selected seeds that were disinfected and advised farmers to sow in rows. Weed, which is a major problem in rice cultivation, should according to FAO (1970), be removed whenever they have grown. Other practices include fertilizer application, bird scaring and harvesting when the panicle has ripened.

2.2 Concept of Agricultural Marketing

The process of producing food and fiber involves much more than farming. It includes many activities beyond the farm-gate, for example, input supply, as well as both marketing and processing of agricultural products (Kohls and Uhl, 1990).

According to Eluagu (1989), marketing in agriculture consists of all processes and services that are involved in the movement of farm produce, food and raw materials and their derivatives from the farm to the final consumer.

A market, according to Yerkes (1994), is both the field of trade for business and the demand for community. He defined marketing as the act of buying and selling in a market or the total of activities by which transfer of title or possession of goods from seller to buyer is effected, including advertising, shipping, storing and selling. Kohls and Uhl (1990) defined a market as an arena for organizing and facilitating business activities and for answering the basic economic questions of what to produce, how much to produce, and how to distribute production.

In a broad sense, Gadeke and Tootelina (1983) defined marketing as a management orientation focusing on all activities of the organization aimed at satisfying customer’s needs and wants, thereby helping to achieve the organization’s long range objectives. However, Kohls and Uhl (1980) defined agricultural marketing as the performance of all business activities involved in the flow of food products and services from the point of initial agricultural production until they are in the hands of consumers.

Agricultural marketing is concerned with all stages of operation which facilitate the movement of goods and services from farms to consumers (Adegeye and Dittoh, 1985). These operations include assemblage of goods, storage, transportation, processing, grading and financing of all these activities. All these operations are considered necessary for getting farm products to the consumers when they want them and in the form in which they are desired.

Together these operations are called marketing functions (Emeribe, 1991).

Kohls and Uhl (1990) opined that many people looked upon those engaged in many marketing jobs, such as grading, transporting, storing, arranging for the transfer of title, advancing and collecting credit, as being parasitic on those who really “produce” the goods. Farmers decry the “profits of middlemen” because they think that farmers alone produce the food that people eat. However, farmers produce only the raw materials from which the consumer’s food is finally made. Agricultural scientists, including breeders, are now recognizing the important role of post-harvest activities to agricultural production expansion in developing economics. Concerning this, Dixie (1989) highlighted that efficient agricultural marketing contributed to the improvement of rural incomes in less developed countries. This is the reason why FAO (1995) made agricultural marketing the latest title in her computer information series with the aim of helping government to develop its price information system and to change from centrally planned to market based economies.

2.3 Rice Processing, Storage and Marketing

2.3.1 Rice Processing

According to Imo (1990), processing involves the transformation of the row food into other foods which can be eaten or stored. In improves the acceptability, palatability and digestibility of the products. Rice processing is limited to the three stages, via, parboiling, drying and milling (Oni and Ikpi, 1981). Parboiling is carried out mostly in old 20 litre oil drums cut in half, using firewood and water. After steaming for about 30 minutes, the paddy is removed from the drum and spread out on woven mats in the sun to dry (Grist, 1959).

The entire paddy processed in the rice mill is parboiled before milling.

Oni and Ikpi (1981) indicated that before the introduction of rice mills, rice processing consisted of parboiling, drying and pounding with pestle in a mortar to dehusk the paddy. This traditional system of processing rice paddy is still used by some village rice farmers in Nigeria. Olayemi (1984) estimated that in 1972 about 10 percent of Nigeria’s rice was processed through this system. The final stage of this traditional system is winnowing. A major feature of the traditional system, according to Oni and Ikpi (1981), is that it is very slow and labour intensive. Furthermore, the final product obtained often contains a high percentage of broken grains and occasionally, some foreign bodies. Based on these limitations this system is becoming less and less popular with the Nigeria rice farmers.

By the end of the 1950’s, rice mill was introduced to replace mortar and pestle. The small rice mills are the most predominant of the three processing systems (Oni and Ikpi, 1981). Their field survey indicated that about 85 percent of Nigerian rice was now processed through the small milling units with an average capacity of 0.2 tons per hour. Each small mill was driven by a diesel engine of about 1.6 horse-power. The average milling capacity of each mill was about 400 tons per annum. It was the usual practice to parboil the paddy before delivering it to the mill site for milling. The small milling unit performed both hulling and milling operations. Usually milling was done for a fee and the mills were usually located in the major rice producing areas of the country.

According to Okorji (1983), the engine powered mill enabled larger quantities of paddy to be processed at a time, as well as produced better quality rice. Some rice mills that were first introduced were still in use, though with slight modifications.

There are, however, modern rice processing methods involving parboiling, drying milling and destoning operations in a single process. In Nigeria these mills are owned by the Government or quasi-government parastatals, such as, the state Agricultural Development Corporation. The Pattegi, Uzo-Uwani and Agbade Rice mills are typical examples of large-scale mills in Nigeria (Oni and Ikpi 1981). These mills have milling capacities of over 0.7 tons per hour, with rice polishing devices.

Incidentally, the sophistication and cost of such modern rice processing machines are beyond the reach of the small-scale rice processors. This is because of the amount of capital investment required. Large mills are not popular with Nigerian farmers, nevertheless, it is hoped that with recent cooperative activities of Nigerian rice farmers, coupled with the pace of technological advancement in the country, this system of rice processing will find greater usage by Nigerian farmers in no distant time.

2.3.2 Rice Storage

An inherent characteristic of agricultural production is that it is seasonal while the demand is generally all year round, hence, storage allows a smooth and, as far as possible, uninterrupted flow of product into the market (Crawford, 1997). Storage can be carried out by the farmers, the traders, marketing board or the consumer. However, this is only viable when produce can be sold after storage at a price higher than the pre-storage price, with the difference fully covering the cost of storage, as well as offering an incentive to take the risks that a loss may result.

According to Olukosi and Isitor (1990), storage cost is an important component of marketing costs. They are costs incurred in the storage and preservation of farm products until the time when they are needed. Olayemi (1974) noted that the seasonal price fluctuations and other market price disparities and deficiencies can be linked with problems of inadequate storage and marketing of staple food stuff if carried out efficiently would be a major contribution to the solution of world hunger.

Anthonio (1971) observed that one of the most serious problems in the marketing of staple food crops in Africa was lack of efficient and adequate storage facilities. Similarly, Momoh et al. (1968) and Onita (1986) reported the pathetic situation in Nigeria’s markets where several farm products were seen rotting away. The regrettable situation is the result of lack of processing and storage facilities and techniques.

Nweze (1997) reported that current obstacles to the marketing of stored food produced in Nigeria included inadequate infrastructure, organizational problems, inefficiency of storage systems and distribution channels, and lack of market information and credit.

Although rice can be stored in both paddy and milled forms, paddy is more common among small-scale farmers. Rice in this form is one of the few food crops that can be stored safely with simple practices in the tropics (Emil, 1964). Furthermore, if the paddy is adequately dried immediately after threshing and is kept in a dry, rodent-free place, it can safely be stored for up to one year without substantial loss in germination and for longer periods for consumption purposes. After the paddy has been milled or even after parboiling, it is subject to insect and weevil attacks. In parboiled paddy form however, toughness and thickness of the outer glume make it quite free from such damages (Emeribe, 1991).

The grains can be stored in different types of soils, dryer and bags in warehouses and therefore require less handling. However, the higher capital investment and operational costs may make some techniques (soils, dryers etc) inappropriate for individual small-scale farmers, although it may be appropriate for groups of farmers or co-operatives (FAO, 1982).

Farmers produce enough food that can last throughout the planting season but the problem is simply their inability to cope with food storage facilities. About 50 percent of agricultural output of every planning season is lost (Nwora, 1984). Adegeye and Dittoh (1985) opined that efficient marketing ensures that supplies of food that are seasonal become available throughout the year with little variation in price that can be attributed to the cost of storage.

2.3.3 Rice Marketing

Rice marketing, as in the case of other agricultural products, can be considered under the forms in which rice is sold and the categories of buyers and markets used. Rice is mainly marketed in paddy and milled forms. Most rice producers, however, sell a greater proportion of their rice in paddy than in processed form (Okorji, 1983). Paddy rice is sold in jute bags which weigh between 70 and 120kg. The size varies by locality. Price per jute bag varies depending mainly on the season, rice variety and locality.

Milled rice is usually sold in bushels containing, on the average, 23kg of milled rice. Price per bushel also varies with season and variety. Locality in this case plays little or no role in price determination since the rice mill industry is located at a given place. Rice is sold to wholesalers, retailers and consumers alike (Nwokolo, 1990).

2.4 Marketing Margins and Costs

Marketing margin represents the difference in price of a given

commodity at different stage of time, as it moves from the primary producer to the ultimate consumer (Schwartz, 1973). Odipko et al, (1988) considered marketing margin from two different angles; the difference between the price paid by consumers and that received by the producer and the outcome of demand for and supply of such service.

Downey and Troche (1981) defined it as the share of the consumers’ fund that is required to cover the costs involved in the marketing process. Osuji (1980) and Kanu (1987) however, defined marketing margin as the price of a collection of services and/or the difference between the farm gate price and the retail price. Both the producer and consumers are concerned about the size of marketing margins and changes in marketing margins.

Marketing costs are the actual expenses incurred in the performance of marketing functions as a commodity moves from the farm (producer) to the ultimate consumers. Marketing costs include the cost of transportation and handling, packaging, storage, processing and capital costs. The true relationship between marketing margin and marketing costs, is that marketing costs plus the normal profit (or loss) earned by the market intermediaries as the commodity passes through the marketing system equals the marketing margin (Olukosi and

Isitor, 1990; Crawford, 1997).

2.5 Gross Margin Analysis

Gross margin represents the difference between Total Revenue (TR) and Total Variable Cost (TVC). Gross margin analysis involves the estimation of costs and returns in marketing. The gross margin (GM) is the money that is available to cover the fixed cost expenses and still leave a profit (Downey and Troche, 1981). If the gross margin is not large enough to cover fixed costs of the business, losses will result. G.M = Gross Income – operating costs.

Gross margin is particularly important to retail agribusinesses because such businesses have relatively little control over cost of goods sold (Downey and Troche, 1981). According to them, the price of the goods that agribusinesses purchase is the most critical factor affecting its gross margin. Different products usually have different gross margins so that total gross margin for the business will also depend on the particular combination or mix of products and their sources. Often management can affect cost of goods sold through careful purchasing.

According to Downey and Troche (1981), to enable farmers compare the financial performance of their farms with those of similar farms, and as an end to farm planning, it is now common place to use the gross margin system. It is a reasonable, straight forward and easily understood system which stimulates the study of farm management.

2.6 Marketing Functions

A marketing function, according to Kohls and Uhl (1990), is a major specialized activity performed in accomplished the marketing process. Economic analysis of marketing functions is one of the approaches used in studying marketing problems. Marketing functions can be classified into three main classes. The exchange functions consist of buying and selling; the physical functions comprises of storage, transportation and processing; while the facilitating functions are made up of financing, standardization, risk bearing and market intelligence (Adekanyea, 1988; Olukosi and Isito, 1990). The appraisal of the marketing functions is aimed at evaluating marketing costs, which are the input costs of accomplishing a marketing activity.

2.6.1 The exchange functions

The exchange functions are those activities involved in the transfer of title of goods. In the performance of the exchange function, price determination occurs. Exchange functions involve buying and selling. The buying function is present at all levels of the marketing channel and is concerned with seeking out sources of supply, assembling of products and activities associated with purchase.

Selling function involves creating demand for products. This can take the form of merchandising, advertising, proper unit of sales, packaging and outlets. It asks the questions, on when, where, and how to sell, quality improvements and pricing (Abosi, 1993; Kohls and Uhl, 1990).

2.6.2 The physical marketing functions

The physical marketing functions of transportation, storage and processing are capital intensive. These activities involve the movement, handling and physical exchange of the actual commodity. Transportation provides place utility, linking people, products and markets. Transportation costs usually account for the largest share of marketing costs. Transportation costs are directly related to distance, while those that relate to functions performed at sites of loading or off-loading are called terminal costs. Both terminal and transportation costs are called transfer costs (Kohs and Uhl, 1985; Olukosi and Isito, 1990; Nwokoye, 1981).

Storage provides time utility to the marketing system. Efficient storage expands food supply in terms of minimization of food losses and preservation. Storage could be done by the farmers, consumers or some intermediate agencies. Storage is interrelated with other marketing functions such as, processing, financing and risk bearing. It facilitates bulking for cost effective transportation. Components of storage costs are physical loss, handling costs of preservation and use of insecticides or chemicals. These costs are however dependent on the length of time the product is stored (Odigbo, 1997; Olukosi and Isito; Osuji 1980; Okeke, 1987). Processing is a physical marketing function concerned with the

conversion of a commodity from its raw state to a form that is more acceptable to the buyer or to the next stage in the distribution chain. Processing transforms bulky or raw perishable farm products into storable and appealing forms and in the process adds form utility to the product. The objective of processing is to widen the demand base for an agricultural product through wider differentiation, i.e., packaging, branding and labeling (Christopher and Midonald, 1981; Olukosi and Isito, 1990; FMAWARD, 1984; Kohls and Uhl, 1990).

2.6.3 The facilitating functions

The facilitating functions are those functions that make the smooth performance of the physical and exchange functions possible. They include sorting, grading, standardization, packaging, risk bearing and insurance, financing and market intelligence.

Sorting is the physical separation of products of different qualities, while grading is the sorting of commodities into lots on the basis of predetermined quality criteria, such as size, degree of ripeness, shape, flavour or other commercial value of product. Grading is aimed at helping buyers to select the most suitable lots of some produce for the uses they have in mind (Olukosi and Isito, 1990). Standardization is the setting up and maintenance of uniform measurements of quality or quantity. Grading and standardization contribute to operational and pricing efficiency by making possible the sale of farm products by sample or description, generating accurate information and lowering search and transport costs. They furnish the basis for marketing and advertising (Abolt and Makeham, 1980).

At every stage in the marketing process, some risks are involved, viz, risk of damage by fire, flood, pests, transportation, accidents, thefts and strike action of workers which may stop operation of plant or stop shipment of goods to their destination. When these occur, the marketing agents incur some losses. To minimize these risks, insurance policies may be taken (Olukosi and Isito, 1990).

Advertising is the creation of awareness on people about the existence of certain goods. It is the promotional device to influence or create demand. It is any form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods and services by any identified sponsor (Adekanye, 1988). Market intelligence is the provision of market knowledge through the collection, analysis and

dissemination of data on demand, supply prices etc.

2.7 Marketing Channels and Agencies

A marketing channel is the path of a product or commodity as it moves from the producer to the final consumer. Most producers do not sell their goods directly to the final users. Between producers and the final users stand one or more marketing institutions, a host of marketing intermediaries performing a variety of functions (Kotler, 1983).

According to Stern and El-Ansary (1983), marketing channel is a set of inter-dependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. A marketing channel performs the work of moving goods from producers to consumers. It overcomes the time, place and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who need or want them (Kotler, 1983).

Marketing channel is classified into two, viz: centralized and decentralized. A centralized marketing channel is one in which commodities are assembled in large, central and terminal markets, where they are purchased by wholesalers or processors from the farmer agents. The decentralized marketing channel is the one that does not use such established, large market facilities. The wholesalers and processors, rather, purchase directly from the farmers (Adekanye, 1988; Olukosi and Isito, 1990). The use of intermediaries largely boils down to their superior efficiency in making goods widely available and accessible to target markets through their contacts, experiences, specialization and scale of operation. Intermediaries usually offer the firm more than it can achieve on its own (Stern, 1983; ElAnsary, 1983).

Marketing channel decisions are among the most critical decisions facing management. The company’s chosen channel ultimately affects all other marketing decisions (Kotler, 1983).

2.8 Market Structure and Conduct

2.8.1 Market structure

Market structure is the organizational characteristics which determine the relationship of sellers in the market to each other, and sellers to the buyers (Bain, 1959).

Market structure related essentially to the degree of composition in a market. It tends to consider whether the number of firms producing a product is large or whether the firms are of equal sizes or dominated by a small group. It is concerned with whether entry for new firms is easy of difficult or whether the purchase of the produce is in a competitive state or not. Structure is related to the degree of market knowledge available to these firms (Solomon, 1984).

However, Tomek and Robinson (1972) saw it as the degree of sellers and buyers concentrations, product differentiations, cost structure, the presence of conglomerates and the barriers to entry into the market. Market structure is therefore, the combination of those characteristics of the organization of the market, which seems to influence strategically the nature of competition and pricing within the market system.

Whitney (1968) observed that it was hard to locate traders who dealt exclusively at the retail or wholesale level. This may be so because some distributors carry on wholesaling and retailing activities at the same time and place. In classifying them, he categorized those who did more retailing as

retailers.

In analyzing marketing structure for grains in Eastern Nigeria, Okeke and Anthonio (1988) stated that empirical findings had shown that grain wholesaling and retailing in the area were monopolistic competition. The market surveys were characterized by the presence of large number of buyers and sellers. Retailers were generally more numerous than wholesalers. Product differentiation was in terms of size, colour and quality of grains sold, as well as their method of packaging. There was relative freedom of entry into the trade and a substantial degree of price competition prevailed.

The structural classification of a market involves the use of three theoretical market models. These are perfectly competitive market, the oligopolistic market and monopolistic market models (Arene, 1998).

2.8.2 Market conduct

Market conduct is a concept that relates to the market structure and which refers to the pattern of behaviours followed by an enterprise in adapting or adjusting to the market in which it sells and buys. It includes methods employed in determining prices and output, sales and promotions and product policy.

The significant dimensions of market conduct include: pricing practices, which encourage grading and standardization of agricultural commodities and uniformity of market charges; pricing practices free of collusion and unfair exclusionary tactics, as well as black marketing and greater consumer satisfaction (Caves, 1982; Olukosi and Isito, 1990).

One implication of market conduct is that the market must spend time and effort not only to improve external marketing but also to improve internal marketing. The marketer must complain like the customer complains when the product or the service is not right (Kotler, 1997).

2.9 Socio-economic Factors Influencing Farmer’s Accessibility to Paddy Resources

2.9.1 Paddy ownership and accessibility

The ownership and access to paddys is a complex phenomenon and is variously interpreted by different stakeholders depending on their particular interests. Some paddys are believed to be individually owned, some are communally owned, some are under ‘assumed ownership’ and others are leased (Bakema and Lyango, 2005). For instance, Chinnack (2005) reported that the oxbow lake and flood plain vegetation’s resources are held to be common property in Thailand. Community members hold that as long as one does not destroy resources or violate specific communal rights where anyone has the right to use the resources of the paddys. In other words, resource access rights come from the rights for basic livelihood, and include a duty for resource co-management within a framework of community rights.

In India, Barik et al. (1996) noted that floodplain paddys of Indo-Gangetic basin have remained as open access resource with no ownership over it. Kambewa (2005) reported that in the Lake Chilwa in Malawi paddy gardens are accessed through permission from village headmen, group village headmen and traditional authorities and through inheritance from family members. Although accessibility resulting from swamps ownership has little bearing on resource use in Uganda, the extent to which swamps are utilised is dependent on accessibility constraints such as the distance the household members have to travel to obtain these resources (Maclean, 2003). In Tanzania if a paddy is within a national park or game reserve, then its management falls under the control of the Director of Wildlife (Chabwela, 1991). Hydropower dams are controlled by the Tanzanian Electricity Company (TANESCO). In some areas, for example, the Bahi Swamps, the wildlife is under the control of the Director of Wildlife but the paddy is managed by the villagers.

Wood (2000) indicated some specific factors that determine access to paddys and their resources to include perceptions of value, availability of household resources which are needed to gain particular benefits from paddys and demands from household resources, which require certain benefits to be obtained from paddys. Others are skills and their distribution in society (especially for medicinal plant collection, but also fishing and wildlife hunting), political regulations/processes and how they impact upon different groups in society and societal rules, which determine activity and norms.

2.9.2 Education

Education is an important element for accessing paddy resources and development. Mallaise (1998) argued that, given everything else, educated rural households are more productive in agriculture and are likely to have access to paddy resources opportunities than the non-educated. Rodgers (1989) asserted that education is one of the strongest means of access to economic resources (paddy) as reflected in household income and welfare.

Education enables the farmer to perceive and understand the rules of the game of paddy access and perceive the relevance in the context of his/her paddy situation. It is an important modernization factor, which influences people’s behaviour, their perceptions and lifestyle (Kangarawe, 1995). However, Mbonile (1995) in contrary argued that the educated people consider themselves as suitable for white-collar jobs and so are likely to move from rural to urban areas in search of better opportunities hence denying access to paddy resources. It is generally acknowledged that education is perceived as being among the factors that influence an individual’s perception to access to resources. Education is therefore taken as the key to better opportunities for development, accessibility, information and services.

2.9.3 Duration of stay

The longer time an individual stays in a village, the more he/ she will be trusted by the surrounding community thus easy access to community resources. For instance, in Uganda in Lake Bunyonyi, Maclean et al. (2003) reported that the increased pressure on swamp resources resulted in a greater reluctance to trust strangers. Moreover, experience and knowledge on issues pertaining to rules and regulations of paddy resources accessibility is enhanced as a person stays long time in the area.

2.9.4 Household income

Abbot and Hailu (2000) observed that it was mainly the relatively wealthy members in Ethiopia that had access to paddy resources for crop cultivation. They performed most of the cultivation not only as a result of their ownership of paddy holdings but also due to their ability to deploy adequate labour both for cultivation and crop guarding. Similarly, Mulugeta (2004) reported that wealthier farmers in Ethiopia tended to access paddys rather than the economically less fortunate ones. In Malawi, Kambewa (2004) reported that about 10% of farmers accessed paddy gardens by renting/ borrowing during dry season and 90% cultivated on their own paddy gardens. In Singida, Tanzania, which is a semi-arid region, Yanda et al. (2005) asserted that the Wagoli households have economic powers (income) to occupy both dry lands and paddys. They also occupy large farm sizes more than 5 hectares because they can manage them by employing labour. Food security depends greatly on income. For instance, Nord (2003) reported that in US, in 2001, food insecurity was five times more prevalent in households with annual incomes below the poverty line ($17 960 for a family of two adults and two children) than in households with incomes above that range.

2.9.5 Household size

The size of the household reflects to a certain extent the availability of labour, which is the most important input in many paddy farming and access. Smaller household size would thus mean limited household labour availability for various activities (Kangarawe, 1995). FAO (2007) reported that relatively larger families in Malawi had more access to paddy particularly where physical works are necessary to control water flow, planting and weeding of crops that are often labour intensive. However, Lorri and Kavishe (1990) reported that large family size was one of the factors contributing to food insecurity and low income to many rural households.

2.9.6 Age

Several studies (Warren, 1991; Adams, 1993; Kajembe, 1994) indicated that indigenous knowledge accumulates with age. Aged people are considered to be key informants since they know much of the information based on the traditional paddy use for food production and other paddy uses. Yang (1999) argues that age connotes experience and perhaps an accumulation of wealth. Therefore, aged people are likely to access paddy resources than their counterparts (the young). For instance, Kambewa (2004) reported in Malawi that 61% of households with paddy gardens had inherited them from their family members, while 39% were allocated the gardens by the chiefs.