EFFECTS OF RICE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ON PERCEIVED SOIL DEGRADATION IN EKITI STATE, NIGERIA
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents the various studies related to the small scale rice/NERICA rice farmer production. This will provide foundation for the analysis of research findings. The areas reviewed include the economic, social and environment aspect that influence the small scale farmers in rice production. The economic will focus on studies or findings related to the access to agricultural inputs, credit facilities, yield obtained from cultivation of various rice varieties and NERICA rice, marketing of rice and income derived from the rice. The social aspect will covered the gender, farming practice, educational status, farm size, organoleptic and other characteristic of rice and NERICA rice (taste, cooking period, conservation in cooking, and swollen capacity) and labour availability. The environment aspect of this chapter reviewed factors within and outside the control of the farmers that influence small scale farmers rice production. All these are reviewed within the context of the small scale rice farmer’s food accessibility in the NERICA rice project
2.2 Economic
This section presents the review of various concepts related economic activities in rice production. This will provide important information for the analysis in the research findings. The areas reviewed include the inputs accessibility, yield, income and marketing. These are very important to the food accessibility of the farmer.
2.2.1 Availability and access to input
The resources we put into the farm business are called input and products which come out are called output (Reader, 2011). Most of the project in the past has not been sustained because of the inaccessibility of the input by the farmer. The input in this study comprises of seeds, fertilizer, herbicides, and pesticides that are used to produce output. Many past studies have stressed on some of the constrains that affect the intervention project on high yielding varieties, lack of money to buy agricultural inputs such as improved seed, fertilizer, herbicides, and pesticide (Awotide et, al. 2010).One of the problems associated with the introduction of the high yielding varieties intervention project is the availability or timely released of the seed to the farmers. Seeds are important source of most food which is of plant origin and with socioeconomic benefit of human welfare (Bamire et.al, 2009). According to Louwarrs and Marrewijk (1999) cited by Bamire et.al (2009), development of high yielding seed varieties have been the technological forces behind the successful green revolution, the availability of foods at prices profitable for farmers and affordable by the populace, and the reduction of rural poverty. Hence, seed provision is essential for increasing food production, improving farmers income, alleviating poverty and ensuring food security both in normal and disaster year. In many intervention project on increase productivity of small scale farmers availability of good quality seed is one of the major constrain, this is supported by Kebbeh et al. (2003) where farmers indicated using seed from the previous harvests or purchasing seed in the local market. It is reported that NERICA rice project supported the establishment of community based seed multiplication system and national seed service will certify the seed produced by seed growers in the project area
before being sold to smallholder farmers in their communities (ADF, 2003) this will make available on time. This is contrary to the viewed of Diagne et, al (2010) that seed productions is still bottleneck in many West and Central Africa where many farmers have no access to improved seed varieties which is the same as the constrains faced by the farmers in the past project.
High yielding varieties required complementary inputs apart from seed, such as fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticides to reach the optimum productivity. Farmers inability to purchase these complementary inputs (Bamire et al. 2009) are one of the constrains that affect the success of most of the intervention project on increasing productivity of small scale farmers. High cost of these complementary inputs and farmers inability to the credit facilities are reasons that caused most of the projects on increase productivity of small scale farmers to fail. From the report gathered at NERICA office, farmers are given all the inputs on credit which they will pay 50%of the cost back after the harvest (NERICA office OGADEP, 2011)
2.2.2 Yield.
Local upland varieties of rice as well as improved varieties used by small scale farmers have low yield about 0.5 metric tons per hectare in the traditional farming system without use of fertilizer. It is reported that under farmers condition where minimal inputs are applied NERICA variety have raised the yields of upland rice by more than 50% and when fertilizer and other inputs are applied is more than 4 metric tons per hectare (ADF, 2003). There is significant increase in the yield of the farmers who adopted NERICA based on the result of the data in 2006 season (WARDA, 2008) this is also in consistent with the founding in Uganda that it has positive effects on productivity and allow farmers to improve their yield (Kijima et al, 2006; Kijima et al, 2008). According to Kijima et al (2006), it was found that average yield of NERICA in Uganda is 2.2 tons per hectare this is as twice as average yield in sub-Sahara Africa. In the studies of Daigne (2009), there is mixed outcome where an impact evaluation suggests that NERICA varieties generated higher yield in Benin, but similar evaluation provide no broad evidence of yield improvement in Cote d’IVoire and Guinea. Other factors that determine yield are timing of planting NERICA varieties and cropping pattern in the previous season (Kimija et al. 2008).
2.2.3 Income
Rice is cultivated as a staple food and cash crop in sub-Sahara Africa (WARDA, 2006) where farmers can use as food and also sell the surplus in the market to generate income to purchase other foods items for household consumption. In Nigeria rice is consumed as a major staple food and also milled for sale to consumers in the country (Brisibe, 2010). From the survey conducted by Adebayo et al.( 2009), 20.2 % of rice was sold in the paddy form while 79.8 % was milled, and out of the quantity of paddy rice milled, 21.8 was sold.. The production is characterised by small scale farmers cultivating less than 2 hectares of land with low yield of rice (Daramola, 2005). Among the problems encounter by farmers is lack of improved varieties coupled with high cost of inputs that led to using the sub-optimal proportions resulting in low and poor quality yield (Daramola, 2005), this will have negative impact on the farmer income.
There are several programmes initiated in the past to increase productivity and income of rice farmers in Nigeria, among them is Presidential Initiative of Rice with the objective to enhance household food security, income, eliminate imports and generate surplus for export (Daramola, 2005.). In 2005 NERICA rice project started with the objective to improve rice production of small scale rice farmers and their household income through transfer of NERICA varieties and complementary technology from WARDA (ADF, 2003). In Gambia it was found that NERICA adoption has increased the farmers’ daily income for about 10 Dalasi equivalent to 0.34 United State dollars on average (Dibba, 2010). This is supported by another study conducted in Nigeria indicated that NERICA adoption increase farm income of household and per capita expenditures, thereby increasing their probability of escaping poverty (Donstop et al, 2010). In another study of analysis of impact and poverty in Uganda, it shows that NERICA has the potential to increase per capita income and to decrease poverty incidence (Kimija, 2008), and also stressed further by suggesting that NERICA income enhancement can be realized among the poorest of poor in the Eastern Africa.
2.2.4 Marketing
Marketing of rice is the source of income for those involved in the production. Rice marketing can be classified into two broad systems; marketing of locally produced rice and marketing of imported rice (UNEP, 2003). Rice producing household either sell their rice in paddy or processed form. Rice is cultivated as staple and cash crop. The part of the harvest is taken to market to sell so as to get income to purchase other of food items that are not produced by farmers. In Nigeria rice producing household either sell their rice in paddy (unprocessed form) or milled to the trader within or outside the village, the place of transaction varies, which usually taking place within the village, local market or the main market (Erenstein, etal, 2003).
2.3 Social
The social well-being of rice farming household and the communities focusing on the quality of life indicators such as gender differentiation, farming pattern, organoleptic , and labour availability.
2.3.1 Gender Differentiation in rice production
Accordingto Ugwu (2009), globally women have title to only 1% of the land: yet
paradoxically women produce half of the world’s food and provide significant to unpaid
agricultural labour for other crops. The role of women in meeting challenges of agricultural production is prominent but there are many factors that militating against their participation but the most are socio-cultural and economic (Ogunlela and Mukthar, 2009). However, women have numerous factors that hinder their productivity. Among them are illiteracy, poverty, and inaccessibility to resources such as land, appropriate technology and farm inputs, and training has not sufficient to enable them to achieve their full potential (Ugwu, 2009).
However, NERICA project has been acclaimed in one of its objectives that rural women farmers has been their target because they are involved in the upland rice production in West Africa and it has been structured and focused to deal with complex gender issues (ADF, 2003). There is not enough literature on the gender issues on NERICA project. There are paper were reviewed some information that will help in this section. In the project appraisal report of African Development Fund on multinational NERICA rice dissemination project 2003, where it was stated in the social impact section that women will benefit more, as they form the majority of the upland rice growers, and the varieties are more taller than the local varieties and this will makes harvesting more easier by removing drudgery for women and children who are directly involved in the harvesting operations. It is also reported that the project will pay special attention to women’s challenges by ensuring that they are represented and organized into rice farming group and seed producers. The report also go further by emphasising that the project will lead to increase in household incomes, food security and well-being of the beneficiaries, specifically socio- economic advantage to be derived by women are: (i) improvement of level of organization, training and productivity in order to increase women’s income; ( ii) involvement of women to improve productivity, profitability, and credit management; (iii) introduction and distribution of technological packages, including conservation and conditioning of food crops; ( iv) enhanced awareness of rural populations to the prevention of HIV/Aids and malaria.
2.3.2 Farming system and practices.
The cultivation of rice usually started with the land preparation in the form of clearing and burning begins in January and February of every year, while the planting is carried out after the first rain in the last week of March and early April and sowing process involved the use of cutlass or knife and hole is dug and seeds is sown into it (Omofonmwan and Kadiri, 2007).
Mixed farming is practice by most of the Nigeria farms which does not permit for mechanization and the used of herbicide (Ismaila, 2010). Rice is mainly intercropped with other crop to increase the yield (Longtau, 2003) and also insurance against the crop failure (Akinbile, 2007). In his study on effect of intercropping maize and cassava with NERICA rice varieties on stemborer attack in south western, Nigeria, Nwilene et al, (2011) found that apart from the advantage of insect pest control, diversifying cropping systems also help farmers with limited access to land and fertilizer. This is supported by Fawole and Oladele, (2007) that multiple farming goes beyond conservative attitude of farmers but also as a means evolving sustainable livelihood of farmers.
2.3.3 Labour Availability
Family labour is the major source of farm labour in developing Sub-Sahara Africa, Maritalstatus contributes significantly to the household size and, by extension, the size of farm household available for farm work Adebayo, et al (2009). In the study conducted by Odogbola (2006), it is shows that family labour predominantly employed in land clearing is 59.8%, while contractor and exchanged labour and in some circumstances combination of the family labour and contractor are utilized. Labour is important input in smallholder agricultural production and can be sourced within the family, or from labour market (hired labour) and any constraint to the cost and availability can be detrimental to farm productivity (Ogundele and Okoruwa, 2006).
2.3.4 Educational Status
According to Ismaila et al, (2010) majority of Nigeria’s farmers cannot read and write which impedes their ability to adopt new technologies that will enhance production of cereals crop. In his study on determinants of productivity level among rice farmers in Ogun state, Nigeria, Akinbile (2007) found that the low level of literacy among respondents may affect their access to information and this is consistent with the finding of Omofonwam and Kadiri (2007) that Nigeria food production faces with many problems among them is illiterate and aging farming population. Tiamiyu et al (2010) concluded that the analysis of the efficiency indices and socio-economic variables revealed that among the factors that affect the efficiency of rice farmers are education. Education plays an important role in acquisition of skill and technology transfer, enhances the adoption of technology and farmers ability to plan and take risks, which likely make him to be more efficient in the use of inputs than their counterpart with little or no education (Ogundele and Okoruwa, 2006).
2.3.5. Farm Size and Subsistence Farming
According to Bamiduro and Gbadeyan (2011), agriculture in developing countries have been largely on subsistence basis and farmers only produce for their families and the quantities produce inadequate for growing population. This is characterised by cultivating small area for farming. Most of the farmers are smallholders with average farm size less than 2 hectares (Daramola, 2005). The findings of (Ogundele and Okoruwa 2006), revealed that majority of farmers operate on a small and medium scale cultivating less than 1 hectare and fewer than 10 hectares, and this limit their potential to produce and thus make them to remain at the subsistence level (Akinbile,2007). This shows that the size of the farm can determine the value of output (Nwaobiala, 2010), this is supported by Adegbite et al (2007), stated that the larger the farm size and the more the cost agrochemicals used and the more revenue expected by the farmers.
2.3.6 Taste and consumption pattern
Eranstein et al. (2003) conduct a survey of imported rice consumer’s preferences and suggest that imported rice cleanliness is the overwhelming technical feature explaining the expansion of imported rice consumption in Nigeria at the cost of local rice market development. Next to cleanliness are swelling capacity (mostly preferred by restaurants and fast food joints), taste, availability and grain shape. The farmers preferred to cultivate the local rice varieties and abandon the improved varieties as a result of its taste and difficulty to sell at good prices (Akinbile, 2007).
2.4 Environment
According to Narrian and Trez (1988) cited by Eboh et al. (2011), Rice (oryza spp) farming depends greatly on the environmental factors, which are most important among several factors that influence agricultural production. Production of rice depend on the optimum combination of input to achieve remarkable yield, and these input are not limited to the familiar to those use for production but include various environmental factors provided by nature. However, the impact of physical environment cannot be neglected in agricultural production as it constitutes physical environment which affect the yield and survival of organisms (Eboh, et al, 2011).
2.4.1 Drought
Drought is one of the constraints that affect rice production in rainfed areas of Asia and Sub-Sahara Africa. The variation in the rice production in the areas that dependent on rainfall and or surface irrigation is closely related to total annual rainfall, even when there is adequate rainfall in rainfed areas, shortages in the critical period due to the long spell between two rains reduce productivity and causes severe economic loss for some of the world poorest communities (Serraj et al, 2011). According to Mohapatra (2009), drought is particularly devastating to Africa rice production since almost 80% of the region’s rice area is rainfed.
Various varieties of rice grown in rainfed ecosystems are for irrigation system ecosystems
without screening for drought tolerance. High yielding varieties generally produce poor crops or even fail when exposed to drought (Verukal et al, 2010). Varieties that have combination of drought resistance and high yielding under favourable conditions and quality characteristics preferred by the farmers are urgently needed. (Serraj et al, 2011). NERICA varieties have been reported to be drought resistance because it possesses the characteristics of high resistance to drought, weed, soil iron toxicity, and acidity
2.4.2 Weeds
Weeds play significant role as one of the major loss of yield in upland rice production (Labrada, 2003). Small scale farmers managed weeds in the farm manually by using hoes and cutlass but face high cost as a result of shortage of labour (Elekeme et al, 2008). Weeds control with the use of herbicides for small scale upland rice farmers are very expensive, and labour may not be available at the time when they are needed and farmers may lack the appropriate knowledge to use the herbicide correctly (Elekeme et al, 2008). Utilization of herbicides by farmers may reduce the problem of labour for weeding, but when it is not correctly applied it may bring about environmental problem (Labrada, 2003). In order to attain optimum yield by small scale farmers, the development and integration of more competitive upland rice cultivars for weeds are necessary. According to ADF (2003), NERICA varieties have wide droopy leaves and tend to grow vigorously at seedling and vegetative stages, this help to smother the weeds thereby reducing the requirement for weeding.This is confirmed by ADF (2003), NERICA cultivations reduce pressure on women and children who are directly involved in the weeding operations. Elekeme et al (2008), in the study of response of upland rice cultivar to weed competition of savannas West Africa, suggested that NERICA varieties are more resistant to weed pressure than other cultivars.
2.4.3 Soil Fertility
According to Adetunji et al., (2009), the management of soil fertility is first condition for sustainable crop production and poses a great challenge to farmers in Nigeria, most especially rice farmers. Fragmented ecosystems and inherited low soil fertility hampered agricultural production in Africa (Ismaila et al, 2010). Traditional shifting cultivation of slash and burn are followed by upland rice farmers, this pose no environmental hazard since there was 10-15 years of fallow at initial year (Fashola et al, 2007). Population pressure now forces farmers to crop over crop (Ismaila et al, 2010), this shortened the fallow period to 3-5 years or less (Fashola et al, 2007) and depleting the nutrient in the soil (Ismaila et, al 2010). Land degradation and loss of soil nutrient through continuous cultivation has lowered rice production in many areas, farmers now required to spend resources on fertility enhancement if they are to improve or sustain yield (Olembo, et al., 2010). The resources of small scale farmers is limited to purchase expensive fertilizer and rice has shown decline in yield over non application of fertilizer.
2.4.4 Pests and Diseases
According to Odogola (2006), pests are among the most serious constrains of both lowland and upland rice and if not effectively controlled, can cause considerable loss in crop yield, market and nutritional value. Infestation of pests and diseases seriously affect the production of cereals in Nigeria, and most common among them are locust, birds, termite, mammal and rodents while diseases include smut, blight and root rot (Ismaila et al, 2010).