LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework

Chapter Summary

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

At independence, Nigeria operated a mixed economy. Her prospect for economic growth was heightened by the dependence on both oil and agriculture. Farming, livestock production, forestry and fishery contributed more than 66 % of the country’s GDP. At the same period, Nigeria was the world’s largest exporter of groundnut and palm produce and the third largest producer and exporter of cocoa. The diversity of these natural resources gave each region a mark of identity. For example, palm produce was largely grown in the East, cocoa in the West and groundnut in the North. Successive governments of Nigeria have introduced various agricultural programmes since independence to promote agriculture, in order to generate employment, stimulate industrialization and overall economic development of Nigeria. The 1962-1968 Agricultural Development Plan was Nigeria’s first national plan. The key objective among others was emphasis on the introduction of more modern methods through farm settlements co-operation (nucleus) plantations, supply of improved farm implements (e.g. hydraulic hand presses for oil palm processing) and a greatly expended agricultural extension service.Some of the specialised development schemes initiated or implemented during this period included (i) Farm Settlement Scheme and (ii) National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP), launched in 1972. There were also a number of agricultural development intervention experiments, notably

(i) Operation Feed the Nation, launched in 1976.

(ii) River Basin and Rural Development Authorities established in 1976.

(iii) Green Revolution Programme, inaugurated in 1980, and (iv)The World Bank-funded Agricultural Development Projects.

While each of the above programmes sought to improve food production, the ADPs represented the first major practical demonstration of the integrated approach to agricultural development in Nigeria. The experiment which started with World Bank funding with projects at Funtua,(1974), Gusau (1974) and Gombe (1974), blossomed into Ayangba (1977), Lafia (1977), Bida (1979), Ilorin (1980), Ekiti – Akoko (1981 and Oyo-North (1982)agricultural development projects. Following the successful negotiations for multi-state agricultural development projects with World Bank, each state of the country, and the federal capital, Abuja, now has one ADP. The years since the early 1960s also witnessed the establishment of several agricultural institutes and their extension research liaison services. Some of the major institutions are:

i) Agricultural Extension and Research stock Production and Fisheries production in Nigeria Liaison services (AERLS), at AhmaduBello University, Zaria

ii) The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan

iii) International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) iv) Nigeria Institute for Oil Palm Research, Benin.

v) National Root Crop Research Institute Umudike, now a University

vi) National Cereal Crop Research Institute.

vii) Establishment of several Universities and Colleges of Agriculture.

The Fourth Development Plan was characterized by slow progress, with massive food importations. Subsequently, Structural Adjustment Programme was introduced in 1985/86 to deregulate and stimulate local production. This was followed by National Acceleration Crops production programme (NAICPP) in 1996 and the Agricultural and Rural Transformation programme (ARTP) in 2000. The National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS) was introduced in 2003/2004; a reform that encourages private sector participations, with one of the cardinal objectives of encouraging agricultural development among others. The Presidential Initiative Programmes (being implemented within the framework of National Economic Empowerment Strategy (NEEDS) and many other externally supported programmes from FAO, UNIDO, WHO were directed towards increase in agricultural production and employment generation.

COMMUNITY RADIO

Community radio is a type of radio service that caters for the interest of a certain area, broadcasting content that is popular to a local audience but which may often be overlooked by commercial or mass-media broadcasters (UNESCO, 2002) as cited by Sharma, (2011). Community radio is confined to a small geographical area. It depends on low power transmission covering not more that 20 – 30 kilometer radius Sharma, (2011). It serves a community which uses common resources of livelihood, has common development issues and concerns, which are relatively localized, nevertheless connected to national and regional development goals. Also according to Sharma (2011), community radio is a vibrant community broadcasting system to enhance pluralism and diversity. It is a truly people’s radio that perceives listeners not only as receivers and consumers, but also as active citizens and creative producers of media content. This form of radio is fully consistent with the letter and spirit of the Milan Declaration on communications media having a responsibility to help sustain the diversity of the world’s cultures and languages and that they should be supported through legislative, administrative and financial measures. Community radio is distinguished by three essential principles. Non-profit making,, community ownership and management, and community participation. Community radio is also characterized by its limited local reach, low power transmission and programming content that reflects the educational, developmental and socio – cultural needs of the specific community it serves. For the purpose of community radio, a community is defined as a non – sectarian group of individuals who are traditionally bound and share a common socio-economic and cultural interest (Sharma, 2011). Some Examples of Community Radio; Farm Radio: This is an outfit of community radio broadcasting that targets the farmers. Farmers meet every time to listen to messages on new farming techniques which helps in improving their yields. In Canada in 1941 to 1965 through the community radio, farmers met in groups each week to listen to special radio programmes on agricultural development. 

The campus radio by different tertiary institutions in Nigeria is a good example of community radio. Such radio is owned by the students and it is not for profit making. The students run the programmes of the radio, as such, information about agricultural development and the need for students to develop a positive habit towards agriculture can be inculcated to the students through agricultural programmes.

Community Radio Broadcasting

Community broadcasting is a grassroots focused system of public communication which has become popular in many countries of the world especially Europe, North America and Latin America. Interestingly, the African Charter on Broadcasting recognises and advocates for a three tier radio regime in individual African countries: public service, commercial/private and community.

Pate and Abubakar (2013:3) quoting Fraser and Estrada (2001: 3) observe: Public service broadcasting is generally conducted by a statutory entity, usually but not necessarily state-supported or state-owned corporation with broadcasting policies and programming often controlled by a public body, such as a council or a legally constituted authority… and community broadcasting is that non-profit service that is owned and managed by a particular community, usually through a trust, foundation, or association. Its aim is to serve and benefit that community; relying on the resources of the community. A ‘community’ in communication parlance is understood within spatial and social contexts (Alumuku, 2006; Ayedum-Aluma & Olatubosun, 2011). In its spatial context, community is viewed relative to geographical territory or a particular cultural or political entity. In the social context, it is defined in terms of shared interests, tastes, and values as well as demographic and psycho-graphic factors. It must be emphasized that people form community, not simply by living in proximity and having functional ‘utilitarian’ contacts with each other, but because they truly communicate with each other and create common symbols and meanings together. Therefore, the community for community radio is defined along these two contexts. Thus, according to Ayedum-Aluma and Olatubosun (2011:188), the community of community radio “may refer to a group having a common language, a common history, a common lifestyle, as well as a common residence or locality.” This also means that the community is not just a local entity, but could also be a global entity, reinforced by Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). From a simplistic perspective, community radio is the radio station established and operated by the people of a specific community to advance, promote and protect the community’s common interest and objectives. In a broader sense, the African Charter on Broadcasting defines community radio as the “broadcasting which is for, by and about the community, whose ownership and management is representative of the community, which pursues a social development agenda, and which is non-profit” (portal.unesco.org). Also, Opubor (2006) explains the term community radio as: When radio fosters the participation of citizens and defends their interests; when it reflects the tastes of the majority and makes good humour and hope its main purpose; when it truly informs; when it helps resolve the thousand of one problems of daily life; when all ideas are debated in its programmes and all opinions are respected; when cultural diversity is stimulated over commercial homogeneity; when women are main players in communication and not simply a petty voice or publicity gimmick; when no type of dictatorship is tolerated, not even the musical dictatorship of the big recording studios; when everyone ‘s words fly without discrimination or censorship, that is community radio. On the basis of the foregoing, Ayedum-Aluma et al (2011:188) on their own define community radio as “an activity owned and managed by a group whose common and defining property may be geographical, demographic, religious, political or even historical.” One major shortcoming of this definition lies in its non-universality especially in countries like Nigeria considering the ethno-religious and political tensions that usually arise to threaten peace and security. Hence, a definition that is silent on those tension areas would be a better one for Nigeria. This paper therefore, views community radio as; a broadcast organization established, owned , and operated by a community (which could be spatial or social) on a non-profit basis to provide participatory and horizontal communication as a catalyst for the overall development of the community.

Features and Roles of Community Radio

Essentially, the community radio is an extension of the lives and aspirations of the community. The community radio is by name, definition, orientation, content and philosophy grassroots based. It cannot be anything but community oriented and people-centred. The coverage is usually limited serving a small community and catering for their special needs and interests (Oso, 2003:159). According to a UNESCO study, “Although news contents vary, emphasis is placed on local news and problems affecting the community and its inhabitants” (1971, p.11). The community radio, just like the community newspaper is an instrument of dialogue among the local people and between them and the outside world particularly the political authority. The community radio therefore, should function as a two-way communication channel providing a means through which the community could express itself, both within and to the outside world. As Muthoni Wanyeki has notes, the community media have a dual role; “that of a mirror (reflecting the community back at itself) and that of a window (allowing the outside world to look in at its experience” (Wanyeki, 2000, p. 30). From the above according to Oso (2003:160), the key issues about the role of the community media in national development revolve around the concepts of access, participation, decentralization and democracy. It is an instrument of horizontal communication. These key concepts should inform the organization and operation of the community media. Its need and importance must also be seen within this perspective.

As Oso (2001:23) earlier noted, the corporate, urban-based media cannot serve the communication and information needs of the local populace. Their (i.e the commercial media) interests, philosophy, organization, ownership and control structure, working and professional values are opposed to the socio-cultural structure and political and economic interest of the local people. It is very evident that while the so-called national, commercial and elitist media are more or less instruments of elite social control, the community media are tools of liberation, democracy and local self-assertion and self-determination. By its nature the community media, of which the community radio is an offshoot, are participatory. They should be owned, managed and operated by the community people themselves. Community participation is thus seen as both a means to an end and an end in itself. The process of community radio programming, production, management and ownership are in themselves empowering, imbuing critical analytic skills and confidence about the interpretations reached and solutions found. The medium therefore, must enable, enhances and sustain community participation, (Wanyeki, op. cit. p.31). Community participation will also ensure that the community radio stations function as appendages of the community; a reflection of what Oso (2003) refers to as ‘a voice of the community and not for the community’. The overriding import of community participation is underscored in the view of Masilela who sees no difference between alternative media and community media. According to him, Alternative media are distinguished by their ownership and management structures, their financing, their regulation, their programming and their policy stances on issues of access and participation. In terms of their ownership and management, alternative media are community-owned and managed through duly elected representatives or direct and voluntary community participation. In terms of their programming, alternative media carry community-oriented programming produced by community members for community members. In terms of their policy stances on issues of access and participation, alternative media are highly responsive to highly targeted audiences and use interactive methods as much as possible, (quoted in Oso, p.161). The characteristics of community radio thus, include access and participation, volunteerism, independence, localism, and diversity. These characteristics are necessary for the achievement of the goals of the radio, which pivot around facilitating human development anchored on freedom, which in contemporary societies is viewed as a springboard for sustainable development. While the philosophy of national broadcasting is promoting national integration and loyalty to the centre (Oso, 2002:153), that of community radio is giving the people a voice. In community radio, the community and its members realize they have something to offer, and consequently, they begin to look for that something from within their own environment. These features clearly show that community radio is built on the understanding of the community and its characteristics. In the words of Opubor (2006), the purpose of community radio is to build community life. Building a community is more than building an individual or a few families. It is built on what holds people together, across different families, religions, sexes, economic situations and political persuasions.

Community Radio and Internet

The internet holds potential for development, especially in rural areas. For example, information about health, agriculture or the environment can be downloaded from it, it can be used to connect health workers, agricultural extension workers or ordinary village, with technical experts to discuss some particular problem and it can be use to put communities in contact with each other for online discussions and debates about issues that effects them.

The village and the Information superhighway

In most developing countries internet access is limited to privilege few. For eg in Africa less than 2 per cent population have internet access and no where are the rural poor part of the privileged internet using minority. How can poor rural people living alone in the village be concerned to the information superhighway?

Integrating radio programming with the internet is one way to reach out to villagers. If the radio station has a computer with internet access, programme producers can use in enormous spectrum of information on subjects of general concern of the audience. Broadcasting such information can bring internet to all the homes.

The Internet and the Programme Production

Through the internet, radio station can obtain a lot quality and range of information from development agencies, NGOs, universities and like more radio programmes can be downloaded from the internet for radio broadcast. The internet is also forum for exchange of programmes. A community radio may also go to offer information about itself to other internet users. It can open a site on the World Wide Web to describe from analogue to digital in moving fast.

Rural Multipurpose Telecenters:

The centers are also called as “Rural Information Shops”. The basic principle is to create a place were villagers can go for information either free or for a price. A community radio station can function like a rural telecentres providing a variety of services. In that case it can provide public service telephone, fax, Video/ CD/ Books/library. it can also sell records, cassettes, higher out video and audio equipments and extend photo copying facilities. In Bangladesh, Gramin Bank Started Gramin Centre in 1996. It provides loan for establishment of teleservices centers, it has been very successful.

Community radio for Agricultural development

Agriculture has always been a highly knowledge-intensive sector requiring continuous information flow. Farmers’ quest for authentic, credible and usable information both from established systems and traditional practices is ever increasing in this fluctuating global environment, to operate efficiently and compete economically. The rapid changes happening around with WTO/globalization, uncontrolled urbanization, uncertainty in climate change, discerning consumer segment and continued farm crisis emphasize the importance of timely, appropriate and need based information and knowledge to meet myriad developmental challenges.

Effective extension, education and communication services are probably some of the key strategies for sustaining agricultural growth, strengthening food security and combating hunger and malnutrition. However, diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, linguistic barriers, geographical remoteness and differential incentives make the task of information dissemination challenging.

Agricultural extension is the vehicle or system for delivering useful information to farmers and assisting those farmers to develop requisite knowledge, skills and attitudes to make use of this information or technology effectively. In recent times advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are revolutionizing agriculture extension by offering various technological options such as television, internet, mobile, telephony etc.

Since independence, India has implemented many extension programs for agriculture and rural development. Agriculture being a state subject, there is a long list of multi-sectors as well as single sector extension models and approaches that were tried, one after another and often in overlapping manner, in the public domain. Despite being well-intentioned and comprehensively designed, these efforts have been often criticized for their poor performance as they all fell well short of set objectives.

Among the three main categories of mass communication tools for agricultural extension such as radio, television and print media, the importance of radio for agricultural extension cannot be denied.

Radio is a powerful communication tool. India’s post-independence experiments with ICT use in agricultural development started with radio. A network of All India Radio (AIR) stations were established across the country that broadcast agricultural programmes in regional languages. AIR (now Prasar Bharathi) has been playing a significant role since many years – bringing new technological information on agriculture and other allied subjects to the farmers. With the recent liberalization of the broadcasting licensing policy, Community Radio has received a new impetus in India. This form of participatory communication has proved to be very successful as a tool for social and economic development at grass root level. The local community needs which are often neglected by the mainstream media could be adequately addressed by community radio. Even farmer to farmer extension can be easily made possible through adequate capacity building as the HAM radio experience underway in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh shows.

Experience with rural radio has shown the potential for agricultural extension to benefit from both the reach and the relevance that local broadcasting can achieve through participatory communication approaches. Extension workers use radio for communicating information on new methods & techniques, giving timely information about the control of crop pests & diseases, weather, market news, etc. For this purpose, talks, group discussions, folksongs, dialogues & dramas are usually organised.

Radio initiatives as part of broader communication for development strategies have been used by various international agencies like UNESCO, UNICEF and FAO of the United Nations since 1960’s. The FAO developed the Strategic Extension Campaign (SEC) methodology in many countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America in order to support the local extension workers. For example the campaign in Malaysia, in collaboration with FAO’s Inter Country Programme on Integrated Pest Management in Rice, radio was used to discourage the use of a particular chemical, Zinc Phosphide, in preference to a safer alternative. The follow up evaluation showed impressive results as number of farmers dropping use of Zinc Phosphide fell by 52%. Various services like market information, market standards, certification, post harvest technologies etc. besides production specific knowledge are critical for farmers. In this era of globalisation, radio can prove to a cost effective and reliable ICT with manifold advantages.

There is an interesting combination of approaches in the use of rural radio for agriculture extension. They are locally focussed, using indigenous knowledge to build on local cultural and agro-ecological diversity, blending with technology and scientific innovation. Also a two way communication of sharing farmers experience can be an interesting adaptation. Historically agriculture extension has often failed to communicate technical information to farmers in a way that has enabled it to be adopted locally. Thus the combinations of approaches strike an effective balance between indigenous and scientific approaches to agricultural development.

The experience of agricultural extension at Simli Radio has shown that the most popular programmes are those that can provide farmers with a direct income-earning opportunity. This frequently involves discussion and training on topics that help to combine growing traditional crops with a supplementary activity that does not require high levels of investment or risk in terms of ceasing existing activities. Specific examples of popular programmes have been on bee-keeping, rearing grass-cutters and giant snail production especially for sale to customers in the south of the country. These additional extension programmes are most popular during the dry season when farmers have the time to consider alternative strategies. During the cropping season specific advice is referred on the full range of crops being grown locally, timed to coincide with the various stages of land preparation, planting, weeding, water management, harvesting and marketing.

However using radio for agriculture extension is just one dimension, as rural radio can serve multiple roles of extending socio-economic development in rural areas such as health, nutrition, sanitation etc.

CHALLENGES TO COMMUNITY RADIO

Community Radio plays a central role in community development. To play this role they need to provide quality programmes to ensure continued audience, and support from the community. It has been a great success in developed nations but has lacked in developing countries because of illiteracy and lack of awareness among people. Community radio faces the challenges in effective and quality programme production in terms of content, production quality and community involvement:

A high turnover of staff that causes a lack of journalistic and technical skills and thus a consistent demand for training. Training on offer in most countries does not address the specific needs of Community Radio.

Community Radio derives its strength and popularity from community participation. In practise participation is harder than it seems, because it is labour intensive, requires the right attitude, skills and mobile equipment.

Without proper management skills, as well as some knowledge of financial management and income generation, it is very hard for Community Radio to survive without donor funding, which will always, eventually, dry up.

Community Radio is by definition relatively small and often situated in locations where basic services, like a constant supply of electricity, are lacking. 5. Due to these conditions equipment suffers and needs to be vigorously maintained and/or regularly replaced.

In many countries there is still a lack of a clear regulatory framework in which Community Radio operates.

Among the various challenges faced by the community radio, the participation from the people is the major one and no community radio can survive without participation of people as it demands 70% participation of the community people.

To ensure people participation essentially the leaders of the community: which include the elected and the religious authorities as well as the informal but also influential opinion leaders must be part of consultation process. But equally important is a consultation process that involves the community at large. Group discussions with various sectors in the community like farmers, fisherman, shop-owners, teachers, artisans, etc. are essential. It is also crucial to consult women and youth, who are traditionally marginalized in many rural societies. FGDs could be conducted to know about the prevailing situation and their opinion regarding it. Nor should any minority, cultural and linguistic group be left out. The points to be ascertained are to know about the listener’s need, listener’s preference and their listening habit. The staff should provide people with technical support and facilities to produce the programme. With the programmes of entertainment and local culture, they should also provide a platform to discuss relevant issues and village concerns in public, with local leaders called on to make respond and make their opinions and position clear. The programme recorded should be broadcasted next day if possible or as soon as possible this motivates the people to participate more and more. Also when the programmes are evaluated opinion of the community should be taken regarding their likings and disliking of the programmes and programme format, further their suggestions regarding programme implemented should be considered and implemented.

IMPACT OF RADIO IN AGRICULTURE

Regular transmission of radio programs related to agriculture gives valuable information about new farming methods. Radio transmission is quick and reaches to a wider population. As the farmers receive useful information from the radio, gradually they bring change in farming method applying new techniques (Ekoja, 2003, p.21). Information and knowledge are two significant factors for rural development. The knowledge of locality further assists the farmers. Dissemination of information along with new concepts and farming techniques can bring novel opportunities to the farmers (Mohammad Retz Nazn and Hasan Harbullah, 2010, pp. 13-20). The study done by Jenkins and his contemporary in northern California has shown that the mass communication has provided much useful knowledge related to agriculture and the experience was quite meaningful. Radio has been proved as the important tool for the enhancement of agriculture in the rural area. In the developing countries, radio is the powerful and effective medium to project the information and knowledge related to agriculture. (Nakabugu, 2001, FAO, 2001) According to Sharma (2008), radio is the reliable medium that can cover wider area and can reach to the large number of people. The strength of radio as the medium of communication is that it is cost effective in terms of transmission, presentation and portability. Radio can be useful medium to educate farmers if it appeals them with new programs having modern agricultural technologies. However, the literacy of farmers is important to understand such programs and apply them appropriately (Mohammad Reza Nazari and Abu Hassan Hasbullah, 2010 ibid). As the rural farmers themselves participate in the radio programs, they become more interesting and effective because of the feeling of the ownership. The message and information easily gets through. Important information related to agriculture can be provided using radio. Nakabugu (2010) further writes: Information on better farming methods, improved seeds, timely planting, agro-forestry, better harvesting methods, soil conservation, marketing, post-harvest handling and diversification. He states that rural radio gives farmers an opportunity to interact with each other and other relevant authorities e.g. extension workers, crop and animal experts through format like live talk shows, phone in programs and on location broadcasts. He further adds, "Since Rural radio is community based, it can be used to mobilize people towards community development work as construction of valley dams, protected wells and immunization of animals".

The international organizations like United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) have been using radio for the development in respective fields since 1960. (Chapman, R. et. al, 2003) Chapman (2003) further writes about rural radio: The strength of rural radio as an extension tool is widely regarded to lie in its ability to reach illiterate farmers and provide them with information relating to all aspects of agricultural production in a language they understand. This emphasizes that rural radio, as a tool of agricultural development and rural development should aim to bring transformation in the livelihood of the farmers by providing useful information. Chapman, R. et al (2003) remark about rural radio: Rural radio can be used to improve the sharing of agricultural information by remote rural farming communities. Participatory communication techniques can support agricultural extension efforts especially using local languages and rural radio to communicate directly with farmers and listener groups. About his study on the impact of farm radio in Pune, India, Paul Neurath (1959, 1960) remarks that the listener that listen the radio have more knowledge about modern methods of farming than those who do not listen. The study shows that Farm Radio Forum has functioned as the agent for the transmission of knowledge and information related to agriculture (FAO, 1956, 1959). Another study of FAO (2005) has found that farm radio has contributed in terms of strengthening social unity, enhancing communicative ability, giving knowledge about locality, preserving environment and solving the problems that arise in the communities. The study has recommended that farm radio should be used extensively as a tool for rural development. Sharma (2001) states that agricultural programs transmitted by Radio Nepal have been very much useful in the context of Nepal. Such programs have left positive impacts in both small and large scale development. Sharma further adds: Agricultural radio and TV program is seen more in the areas of vegetable cultivation, plant protection, pesticides, cereal crops livestock and poultry, store management of the cereal crops. The study further says that the farmers of Parbat district have been listening agricultural programs with much interest and enthusiasm. To make such programs regular, more effective and interesting, the farmers have recommended including such subject matters: -vegetable cultivation with hybrid technology -irrigation management -improved seeds of different crops -source, quality, improved breeds of livestock and poultry etc. The study by CEDA (2001) on the impact of agricultural programs transmitted by Radio Nepal mentions that such programs have helped the farmers to improve the farming methods. The farmers have received the agricultural programs transmitted by Radio Nepal and Nepal Television for information and knowledge. It was found that the farmers have listened with enthusiasm the agricultural programs like Sukrabarko Budhi Aamai (The Old Mother on Friday), question answer on Friday, veterinary series on Tuesday, discussion on Thursday and farming program on Sunday.

The first and foremost role of radio education is to help the farmer accept new agricultural technology for obtaining higher yields and changing the age-old concept of low yields : this is being done remarkably well, as is evident from the fact that new technology, in general, has been accepted by the farmers of different categories . Their willingness to augment their farm income by adopting sophisticated improved agricultural practices to be regarded as a most remarkable change in their behavior. In our context, radio can function as a tool for dissemination of reliable information related to agriculture to bring change in the farming methods thereby bringing economical transformation in the country.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In recent years, particularly in the developing nations, there have been moves towards democracy and active participation of people in communication activities. Democratic ideals have ushered in more participatory approach, replacing the traditional top-down approach of colonial and authoritarian systems. The top-down communication system perceives the receiver of information as passive, the communication process was only from sender to receiver, placing sender on a powerful position.

Radio is rightly acknowledged as a crucial medium of mass communication, more widespread than Television and more accessible than Newspaper in Africa. Previous studies have confirmed radio as a potential instrument of social engineering, capable of shaping listeners knowledge, opinions and behaviours (Daloz & Verrier (2000:180).

Community Radio broadcasting is an alternative medium of mass communication that allows for community participation unlike the traditional top-down system. It is seen to offer a vehicle which can give a voice to local groups, because it enables the empowerment of people by giving them the means to inform and be informed within a participative communication medium (Rama & Louw, 19 93:73).

In developing nations, community radio is seen as a powerful agent for social change and democratisation. It provides forum for community expression and a primary means of access to the broadcasting system that previously was seen as a commodity for the elite.

DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPANT MEDIA THEORY UNDERPINNING COMMUNITY RADIO

Name of Theory: Democratic Participatory Media Theory

Profounder: Dennis McQuail

Year propounded: 1987

Core Assumptions: - The theories of the mass media, better referred to as philosophies of the mass media are the tenets that regulate the affairs of the mass media in any particular country.

Democratic participant theory is a type of theory that emphasizes and supports the media multiplicity, local nature of the media, horizontal media involvement and interaction. The theory is mainly concerned with the people’s right to relevant information, the right to reply, the right to use the means of communication for interaction in small scale settings of interest groups, subculture and community.

Denis McQuail’s (1987) Democratic Participant Media Theory calls for the decentralisation and democratisation of the media to allow for easy access to channels of communication and the active participation of media audience in the media. The theory emphasizes that the audience is important in the communication and development process and thus, the media should serve the needs, interest and aspiration of the receivers (Anaeto and Anaeto, 2010).

The fundamental point of the theory as cited in Anaeto and Anaeto (2010) is that: Needs, interests and aspirations of the active receiver in a political society has to do with the right to relevant information, the right to answer back, the right to use the means of communication in small-scale settings of community, interest group, sub-culture (McQuail 1987:122).

McQuail (2005) sees the theory as reflecting public reaction against the commercialization and monopolization of the privately owned media and against the centralism of public broadcasting institution, established according to the norms of social responsibility.

The Democratic Participant Media theory calls for democracy in the media i.e. the media should be interactive and participative and the people should be involved. It connotes that individuals have right to communication and right of access to media channels. It calls for the establishment of local media that can easily take care of the information needs and aspirations of smaller groups and communities. Access to the media can stimulate and empower small groups. By allowing easy access to information and the media, the process of development will be accelerated.

The theory kicks against centralism, commercialisation and monopolisation of the media because such practices failed to offer opportunities for individuals and minority expression. It calls for horizontal flow of communication which involves the media audience rather than top-down communication approach.

It also calls for the establishment of “small media” by local communities and groups so that they can meet their own needs and that of potential users of the media.

Although McQuial in formulating the theory stated that it fits developed liberal societies, the positions, assumptions of the theory as well as the communication environment in developing countries make the theory also suitable to the developing countries, Anaeto and Anaeto(2010).

From the foregoing, one will conclude that understanding and application of the Democratic-Participant theory led to the evolution and advent of community radio in both developed and developing countries. Nations have identified community radio as an effective way of harnessing democratic values and popular participation in development activities at the grassroots.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several authors and scholars Agricultural Development and Community Radio. The works of scholars who conducted empirical studies have been reviewed also. The chapter has made clear the relevant literatures.