REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Framework
Empirical Framework
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Educational Technology
Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes. Technology in education is a tool, a way for fact-based learning and allows students to do a lot of the research using the internet and various tools. Technology can be used to enhance critical thinking and critical literacy skills, evaluating the legitimacy and accuracy of online content is the central part of 21st century education. It is important for young people to understand the morals and ethics of using this online content. Therefore importance attached to educational technology includes:
Effective utilization of hardware and software.
Developed teaching learning materials as per needs.
Analyse process of teaching.
Improves overall skills.
Meaning of Educational Technology
Richey defined educational technology as “study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological process and resources.”
The association for educational communication and technology (AECT, 2008) denoted evaluation of processes and resources for learning. As such, educational technology refers to all valid and reliable applied education science, such as equipment, as well as processes and procedures, that are derived from scientific research and in a given context may refer to theoretical, algorithmithic or heuristic process; it does not necessarily imply physical technology.
Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating and improving performance by creating, using and in an appropriate technological processes.
The term educational technology is often used interchangeable with the instructional technology. However, there is significant different between these two terms. Educational technology is broad subject than instructional technology. Instructional technology is the subsection of educational technology. Seels and Richey (1994) describe the term educational technology is broader than instructional technology because educational refers to all aspect of educated while the term instructional is unlimited to teaching and learning process. Although the term instructional is limited to ‘teaching and learning problems. Although the term instructional technology is often used identical with educational technology, it presents certain requirements that are not found in meanings of educational technology (Ventatiah, 1996).
Educational technology is broad subject and it is impossible to cover it as single teaching technology, behavioural technology, and instruction design or management technology (Sharma and Sharm, 2006).
Instructional technology is “the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning “(Seels and Richey, 1994) instructional technology is “the application of sociological, psychological and scientific rules, principles and knowledge in the instructional process in order to attain learning objectives. It is the system and network devices, instruments, methods and techniques used to achieve certain defined set of learning objectives “(Sharma and Sharma, 2006).
Teaching technology is a unification of academic system which is designed to enhance the effective learning objectives “(Sharma and Sharma 2006). Teaching technology is a unification of academic systems which is design to enhance the effective design of teaching. Learning process to solve the problems which are faced during teaching and learning process and to improve the quality and retention of the information which are presented (Usman, 2002). Educational activities are those activities which are design to bring about desirable changes, in the behaviour of the students, the psychology deals with all type of human behaviour. Therefore, behavioural technology is broader than educational technology. It covers many fields commerce, industry, defense, administration, communication, motivation, health, training education, teaching and instruction. These fields need specific type of behaviours B.F Skinner called the term behavioural technology as “Technology and teaching” (Sharma and Shama, 2006) instructional design as “the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources and assessments”
To ensure the development of technology skills of students there are three seminar projects which are realized as group work (Denton 1995). First one is concerning statistics. In autumn first year students of technology-oriented primary teacher education must be able to make a kit for building a meccano bridge model with pupils. Students have no so much knowledge of educational sciences and for that reason they have to concentrate to gather the information of learning process of pupils. After wards this written information will be analyzed according to the theories of educational science and technology education.
Significance of Educational Technology
Improved open access to education, including access to full degree programs.
Better integration for non-full time student, particularly in continuing education.
Improved interactions between students and instruction.
Provision of tools to enable students to independently solve problems.
Acquisition of technological skills through practice with tools and computers.
No age-based restrictions on difficulty level i.e students can go at their own pace.
Defray travel costs.
Approaches of Educational Technology
There are two approaches to educational technology:
Software and hardware approach
System approach
Software and Hardware
The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives for example, you can say: The problem lies in the software. Meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself you can also say. It’s a software problem.
This distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchased a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded.
System approach
The step by step programmed learning approach it also known by other names such as step by step plan system analysis, systematic approach, system technology. When emphasis moved from tools technology to system approach or system technology, this change became known as educational technology. Educational technology therefore is the process whereby we first study or examine the situation and do the following:
Identify the educational problem to be solved or the educational activity to be undertaken;
State the objectives to be achieved in solving the problems or undertaking the educational activities.
Indicate the conditions necessary for the achievement of the objectives.
Map out appropriate methods and material resources to be used in order to achieve the objectives; design the way of knowing whether or not the objective are achieved.
Determining whether the objectives have been achieved. The system or way of knowing about the achievement of objectives or success or failure of the activity undertaken is known as evaluation. The information we gather through evaluation is the feedback.
Where the objectives are not achieved or the educational activity not successfully carried out, we examine stage i-v above, locate the problem, make necessary changes and tackle the problem again until the objectives are achieved or the educational activity is successfully completed.
With this stresses or demands, educational technology, is defined as the systematic analysis of educational problem or activities, which results in the identification of objectives, designing of resources and methods and the integration and evaluation of these for the
achievement of objectives or better results. Professional organizations and educational technology. For example the British National Council for educational technology sees it as the process of applying available knowledge in a systematic way to problems in education and training. Ingle saw educational technology as an integrated and systematic way of designing, planning, implementing and evaluating the total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific objectives research and information on human learning and the process of communication.
Theoretical Framework
Educational technology is the effective use of technological tools in learning. As a concept, it concern an array of tools, such as media, machines and networking hardware, as well as considering theoretical perspectives for their effective application.
Educational technology is not restricted to high technology. Nonetheless, electronic educational technology has become an important part of society today. Modern educational technology includes (and is broadly synonymous with) e-learning, instructional technology, information and communication technology (ICT), Editech, learning technology, multimedia learning, technology-enhanced learning (TEL), computer based instruction (CBI), computer managed instruction, computer based training (CBT), computer assisted instruction or computer aided instruction (CAI) internet based training(WBT) online education, virtual education, personal learning environment (VLE) (which are also called learned platforms), M- learning and digital educational. These levels have been variously used and understood, and conflate to the broad domain educational technology and e-learning. These alternative descriptive term are all more restrictive then ‘educational technology in that they individually emphasis a particular digitization approach, component or delivery method. For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, but is otherwise indisguishable in principles from educational technology.
Theoretical perspective and scientific testing may influence instructional design the application of these theories of human behaviour to educational technology drives input from instructional theory, learning theory educational psychology, performance technology.
Educational technology is an inclusive term for the tools that technologically or electronically support learning and teaching. Educational technology, however, modern electronic educational technology has become an important part of society today. Everyone of these numerous term has had it advocates, who point up particularly potential distinctions. In practice as technology has advanced, the particular “Narrowly defined” aspect that was initially emphasized has blended into the general field of educational technology and e-learning.
Bernard Luskin, and educational technology pioneer, advocated that the “e” of e-learning should be interpreted to mean “Exciting” energetic, enthusiastic, emotional, extended, excellent and educational.”
The Development of Educational Technology in the World
The historical foundations of devising means to help people in ways that are easier, faster, surer, or less expensive that previous means can be traced back to the emergence of very early tools, such as painting on cave walls. Various types of abacus have been used. Writing slates and blackboards have been used for at least a millennium. From their introduction, books and pamphlets have held a prominent role in education. From the early twentieth century, duplicating machines such as the mimeograph and Gestetner stencil devices were used to produce short copy runs (typically 10-50 copies) for classroom or home use. The use of media for instructional purposes is generally traced back to the first decade of the 20th century with the introduction of educational films (1900s) and Sidney Pressey's mechanical teaching machines (1920s). The first all multiple choice, large scale assessment was the Army Alpha, used to assess the intelligence and more specifically the aptitudes of World War I military recruits. Further large-scale use of technologies was employed in training soldiers during and after World War II using films and other mediated materials, such as overhead projectors. The concept of hypertext is traced to Bush's description of memex in 1945.
Slide projectors came into widespread use during the 1950s and were widely used in educational institutional settings. Cuisenaire rods were devised in the 1920s and saw widespread use from the late 1950s.
In 1960, the University of Illinois initiated a classroom system based in linked computer terminals where students could access informational resources on a particular course while listening to the lectures that were recorded via some form of remotely linked device like a television or audio device.
In the early 1960s, Stanford University psychology professors Cuisenaire Rods, Patrick Suppes and Richard C. Atkinson experimented with using computers to teach maths and reading to young children in elementary schools in East Palo Alto, California. Stanford's Education Program for Gifted Youth is descended from those early experiments. In 1963, Bernard Luskin installed the first computer in a community college for instruction. Working with Stanford and others he helped develop computer-assisted instruction. Working with the Rand Corporation, Luskin's landmark UCLA dissertation in 1970 analyzed obstacles to computer-assisted instruction.
In 1971, Ivan Illich published a hugely influential book called, Deschooling Society, in which he envisioned "learning webs" as a model for people to network the learning they needed. The 1970s and 1980s saw notable contributions in computer-based learning by Murray Turoff and Starr Roxanne Hiltz at the New Jersey Institute of Technology as well as developments at the University of Guelph in Canada. In 1976, Bernard Luskin launched Coastline Community College as a "college without walls" using television station KOCE- TV as a vehicle. In the UK the Council for Educational Technology supported the use of educational technology, in particular administering the government's National Development Programme in Computer Aided Learning (1973-77) and the Microelectronics Education Programme (1980-86).
Essential Components of Quality Technology Plan
The main purpose of educational technology is the achievement of educational objectives set by leaders in educational matters as well as by society itself. In order to attain this purpose, educational objectives, curriculum content, resources for learning and the evaluation and modification of the learning process are harmonized with a view to improving effectiveness. Educational technology is concerned with the whole process of gaining knowledge. The process involves the learners, curriculum content, the teacher, methods, resources materials as well As other educating agents. Educational technology also stresses new developments in teaching and learning and is concerned with the fullest use of central services units (educational resources centres) the definition purpose and concerns of educational technology is not just teaching material as many people think. The following elements make up educational technology:
Course development (evolving or expanding the content of a course).
Teaching course unit or lesson
Teaching methods
Design of teaching or instructional materials.
Problems Militating Against Effective Practice of Educational Technology
Like other innovations, the practice of educational technology is faced with problems both in the developed and in the developing countries. One of such problems borders on the misunderstanding of the concept itself. Many people particularly in the developing countries have a narrow idea about the field and this affect the practice greatly. They see it only in terms of teaching aid and or the use of mechanical gadgets like Projectors, Radio, Film, Television, Computer etc. this makes educational technology to look as if it is product oriented per-se whereas the field is process-production oriented with great emphasis on the process aspect.
Ironically; however, most of our primary and secondary schools in Nigeria are hardly properly equipped with Audio - visual materials (which most people erroneously equate with educational technology). Even where some schools (particularly the private ones) are:
Reduction of teacher's workload. The present situation were a teacher especially at the secondary school level teaches minimum of five period per day .does not give room for creativity and practice of educational technology.
Regular inspection of school to find out the extent to which the concept of educational technology is understood and applied by teachers.
Adequate instructional media materials should be supplied to all schools. Building of a standard (i.e. adequate staffed and equipped learning resources centre in each local government area by each state government, which will cater for all the institutions in each state and each local government area. If these recommendations are implemented, it is hoped that most of the problem facing our educational technology will be solved or at least be reduced to the bearable minimum.
2.3 Review Of The Related Empirical Study
The Objectives of Teacher Education Programme
Ensure that reach faculty member in as convenient to a computer and appropriate software, whether on their dest, or in a faculty use area, the convenient and relatively private use of a computer and related educational technologies. Is an important encouragement to faculty members for experiencing with different computer applications, and makes it easier for them to become proficient’s users of technology. When the computer and other technology becomes a helpful tool for the individual faculty member, then the use in classes with student is the next logical step (Johnson and Harlow 1993).
Obtain the equipment necessary to support classroom technology use. It is indeed very difficult for any faculty members, even the most enthusiastic, to embrace the instructional use of educational technology without at least some access for students and classes (Johnson & Harlow 1993) in (Novak & Berger, 1991). A traditional computer laboratory may be necessary to help support a ‘hand’ on oriented class, or at a minimum.
Provide an instructional expectation that faculty will include educational technology in their instructional many may feel that is educational technology is important enough to be an expectation for the institutional curriculum. In essence it should be expected that all faculty will integrate technology into appropriate courses and situation. (Nelson, Andre, & Iceete, 1991: Novak & Berger 1991).
Provide periodic technology training for faculty. The fourth institutional objectives builds upon the equipment related objectives, and helps to support the faculty’s ability to “Keep up” and build an understanding of new technologies of tin, because of the perceived stature of higher education faculty members, they or their institution are reluctant to become involved in training activities.
Provide an institution environment supportive of the crisk taking necessary by faculty to try new approaches to instruction. Faculty members also believe that their overall institutional environments are supportive of the general risk taking necessary to try new approaches.
The Challenges or Problems Affecting Teacher Education in Nigeria
One of the challenges facing Nigeria system is in adequate qualified manpower. This could explain the much talked-about falling standard education.
It also goes to support the age long adage, that “no education
system can rise above the quality of teachers”
Experts trace the low rating of teachers in the Nigerian society to the development. Unlike other academics discipline that are highly competitive, there are scanty applications into faculties of education and colleges of education.
At a lecture he delivered at Tai Solarin university of education (TASUED) Ijebu, Ode, Ogun, recently, Professor Okebukola said most graduate teachers are no professional’s and are inadequately exposed to teaching practice while many of them cannot communicate effectively in English.
The Place of the Educational Technology in Teacher Education
Individualized instrument
Improvement in the quality of teaching
Meeting the problem of mass education
Equalization of Educational opportunities
Individualized instrument: Educational technology is very helpful in individualizing instruction by enabling us to make use of self instructional programmes.
Improvement in the quality of teaching: Educational technology assists in the improvement of the teaching learning process by enabling us use more varied rich and motivational programmes through T.V and other media.
Meeting the problem of mass education: educational technology helps in using programmes developed by experts for a large population of students with the use of computers and T.V.
Equalization of Educational opportunities: Educational technology assists us in making effort for equalizing educational opportunities irrespective of economic, social and geographical status of the learner.
At this level, resources are considered a viable 'mix' of men, machines, methods (techniques), materials, money, and curriculum - that can hopefully be adjusted to individual learning. All we need to do is to apply educational technology wisely and revitalise our teacher educational system particularly at some formal levels of education.
Educationalhasathree-dimensional approach(Davis 1973) namely:
Hardware approach (the use of machines, tools, equipment; and gadgets)
Software approach - associated with programmed instruction (characterised by derailed task analysis, writing to precise objectives, selection of learning strategies, reinforcement of correct responses, and constant evaluation) - the underlying
principle derive from the application of learning to the direct and deliberate shaping of behavior.
Application of system approach - a systematic process of managing ideas, resources, people, hardware and software and the environment in identifying and solving educational problems.
Summary and Uniqueness of the Study
This chapter is the review of related literature which discussed the conceptual frame work, theoretical frame work, essentials components of quality technology plan, the development of education technology in world, problems of educational technology in Nigeria and review of related empirical study on the role of education in Nigeria. A case study of Shehu shagari College of Education Sokoto.
Furthermore, what makes this research to be unique from other researches conducted on the topic related to this research is explanation of the essentials and development of educational technology worldwide which in all the studies conducted no one ever touch something of that nature.