REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

This chapter tries to show that, the primary level students in Malumfashi Local Government do not learn English language in environment conducive to effective learning. The students in their schools are overcrowded, that the furniture is not comfortable for proper sitting and that classrooms are without proper lighting and ventilation. The schools have also no well stocked libraries, adequate chairs, and tables, and adequate classrooms.

Language Teaching and Learning

In discussing about language teaching and learning, Brown (2007a) points out that, there is a depending and subordinating relationship between teaching and learning. Teaching plays roles as guiding, facilitating learning, and encouraging the learner and setting the conditions for learning. Having a good understanding of how the learner learns will help teachers determine their philosophy of education, their teaching style, approach, methods, and classroom techniques. According to Cook (2001), “the proof of teaching is in the learning”, and “all successful teaching depends upon learning” (p. 9). Cook also states that there is no point in providing interesting, well prepared language lessons if students do not learn from them.

Goal of Language Teaching and Learning

It is important for teachers and learners to understand the goal of language teaching and learning, as well as how to achieve it. It is pointed out that the goal of language teaching is to develop learners’ communicative competence (Liu, 2003; Rivers, 1978). As advised in Rivers (1978), “when selecting learning activities, we must always remember that our goal is for the students to be able to interact freely with others: to understand what others wish to communicate in the broadest sense, and to be able to convey to others what they themselves wish to share” (Rivers, 1978, pp. 3-4). Following this point, Liu (2003) believes that the ultimate goal of language instruction is to equip learners with the ability to use the language for their communication. This reasonably explains why the four macro language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing) fall into the two categories: vocal and written communication. Listening and speaking are the most important forms of vocal communication, whereas reading and writing are the most important forms of written communication.

Major Methods in Language Teaching

To understand the current methods for English language teaching, the reasons for the dominance of several teaching methods in language classrooms, as well as the challenges that teachers and learners encounter, it is necessary to understand the major methods for language teaching. These methods are summarized below.

The grammar-translation method is “a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language” (Richards, 2001, p. 5). According to the grammar-translation method, reading and writing are the main focus, while listening and speaking are not emphasized. Vocabulary is taught using bilingual word lists, grammar is taught deductively, and the student’s native language is the medium for instruction (Richards, 2001).

The direct method proposes that a foreign language should be learned the way children learn their first language, or the way children being transferred to another country acquire a second language naturally and without great difficulty (Rivers, 1968). Foreign language learning, therefore, must be natural, and language should be taught without translation and without the use of the learner’s native language. Instead, it should be taught through demonstration and action. Grammar should be taught inductively, and speaking and listening should be developed in small and intensive classes (Richards, 2001).

The audio-lingual method is a language teaching method that originated from the intensive language training courses of the US military and focuses on aural and oral skills. These courses were also known as the army method. Later, in its variations and adaptations, this method was renamed the audio-lingual method in the 1950s (Brown, 2007a). The audio-lingual method is described by Brown (2007a) as follows:

New material is presented in dialogue form, little or no grammatical explanation is used, grammar is taught inductively, structural patterns are taught using repetitive skills, vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context, there is much use of tapes, language labs and visual aids, very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted (p. 111).

Communicative language teaching aims to develop the learner’s communicative competence. As pointed out by Richards (2001), in communicative language teaching classes, tasks and activities are designed to enable learners to achieve communicative objectives by participating in communicative processes such as exchanging information, negotiation of meaning, and interaction. In communicative language teaching, learner-centered learning is emphasized. Characteristics of communicative language teaching are summarized by Brown (2007a) as follows:

Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence and not restricted to grammatical or linguistic competence, language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes, fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques, students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively, in unrehearsed contexts (p. 241).

Issues Relating to the Activity of English Teaching and Learning

The Roles of Teachers and Learners

According to Lochana and Deb (2006), teachers have recently realized the importance of using a student-centered approach to teaching where teachers can help students to learn the target language in context and to use it in real situations both inside and outside the language classroom. Collaborative or cooperative learning is described by Richards (2001) as a student-centered approach in which learners use cooperative activities, such as pair work or group work, to: express their viewpoints and opinions; share their ideas, information and experience; and discuss and debate with each other. Jacobs and Hall (2002) point out that, when using cooperative learning activities in language classrooms, teacher talk should be reduced and students’ talk should be increased, with a focus on negotiation of meaning and a greater amount of comprehensible input. In addition, a relaxed classroom atmosphere and motivation for learning should be emphasized. Collaborative learning aims to provide learners with interactive tasks that can help them develop communicative competence (Richards, 2001).

Student-centered collaborative approaches require teachers and learners to play roles that are different from the traditional approaches. According to Brown (2007b), teachers play five main roles when using collaborative activities involving pair work and group work for students in language classrooms. Teachers should help students build up enough classroom language so that they can understand the teachers’ instructions, choose group techniques appropriate for students, plan group work, monitor tasks, and help debrief students to start the activity.

Littlewood (1981) advises that, while students are involved in communicative activities such as pair work or group work, teachers should act as observers who walk around the class to give students guidance to start their discussions, give students advice when necessary, and help them to solve disagreements within pairs or groups.

However, before learner-centered activities are undertaken, teachers should ensure that all students are clear about the tasks and instructions so that the students are able to start their work independently and confidently.

Besides the teachers’ roles, the learners’ roles in student-centered collaborative learning approaches are described by (Breen & Candlin, 1980) as follows:

The role of learner as negotiator—between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning—emerges from and interacts with the role of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way (p. 110).

Students’ interdependence is considered important in student-centered learning approaches. Students are expected to interact with each other, rather than with teachers (Richards, 2001). To acquire this capacity, students need to have confidence, high motivation and positive attitudes toward their study (Liu & Zhang, 2007).

Therefore, learner autonomy and motivation are important factors for successful teaching and learning.

In relation to the roles of teachers and learners in Nigeria, while teachers play the role of controllers and knowledge providers, the students’ role is quite passive (Le, 1999; Nhan & Lai, 2012; Tin Tan, 2010). However, some learners are no longer completely passive (Mai & Iwashita, 2012; Nguyen, 2002), and instead of enjoying traditional whole-class settings, they prefer to participate in activities such as pair work and group work that help them to use the language and enable them to explore problems themselves as well as co-operate with their friends to acquire knowledge effectively (Mai & Iwashita, 2012). In classroom communication activities, many students have the desire to express their thoughts orally, provide discussion topics and share their experiences with the class (Tomlinson & Dat, 2004).

USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS/AIDS

This study has revealed the dominance of textbooks, dictionaries, chalkboards, workbooks and posters in the teaching of English language in primary levels in Malumfashi local government area. These findings agree with those of Kolawole (1998) who found that the teaching of English language is bedeviled with many problems such as inadequate period of teaching, method of teaching, and lack of adequate and useful aids. Traditionally, teachers have depended on textbooks and the chalkboards as aid for disseminating knowledge in the classroom. With the current practice by English teachers in primary level in Malumfashi local government, their pupils are greatly deprived without access to modern instructional aid such as audio and video tapes, language laboratories, programmed texts, flash cards, computers, magazines and newspapers. With application of modern technology in the classroom instruction can be more pupils-centered and individualized.

2.3 USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES/METHODS

Galliher et al (1995) states that teachers must assume the role of “resource brokers.” The implication of this that, teachers should became familiar with a variety of instructional delivery methods, rather than rely on one “best way.” The findings in this study run contrary to the above assertion as the English language teachers in Malumfashi L. G. A at primary level still depend heavily on the traditional method in English lessons. However, the use of a good teaching method will surely improve the pupils to desire to learn, and good teaching techniques add to the quality of teacher. In this research exercise, we discovered that most of the teachers in the local government are using translation method and role playing method. We also noticed that the teachers usually come into the classroom and teach the pupils by direct translating lexical items to Hausa language, and also those pupils who do not understand English are asked to play various roles, in vernacular languages. Thus, they are not encouraged to speak English language. These methods are found to be ineffective and unattractive.

In addition to the use of lecture method, Cleve (1992), and Oluikpe (1979) advocated the use of method such as free writing techniques in essay writing. The goal of this method is to instill in the learner the facilities needed to produce clear piece of composition free from all grammatical errors. The technique advocated here include presenting teachers model essays, reading other materials such as journals, novels and magazines, and allowing pupilsfree expression so that their language experience can be enriched.

THE TEACHING AND LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

The primary schools in Malumfashi local government area, revealed the following environmental deficiencies:

Many primary schools are located in areas where there is a busy movement and activities of many people. It was observed that many people used the school’s premises as short cut to their destinations. Many people often move through the paths and across the playing fields in many of the schools;

Many schools has dilapidated buildings with leaking roofs and cracked walls. Many of thesedilapidated buildings are still being used for teaching/learning;

The research observed that most of the schools, especially those in main town are overcrowded with pupils as many as 70 to 100 pupils, that the teacher had little or no room to move around to give individual attention to students;

Lack of electricity in majority of the schools;

Research also observed that most of the schools have no adequate staffrooms and offices;

The researchers also observed that, most of the schools have no libraries, and where there are available there was scarcity of books in the shelves.