REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
Conceptual Framework and
Theoretical Framework
Empirical Review
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept of Environment
There have been different definitions of the concept of „environment‟ proferred by different scholars and organized bodies/agencies. However, from whatever angle one perceives the term; „environment‟, it simply depicts what surrounds us. To Hagget (1975), cited in Anijah – Obi (2001), environment refers to the “sum total of all conditions that surround man at any point in time on the earths surface”. According to Miller (1975), the term environment‟ could be perceived as “the aggregate of external conditions that influence the life of an individual or population, specifically the life of man and other living organisms on the earth‟s surface”. The Federal Environmental protection Agency (FEPA) Act of 1990, under section 38 also gave a very lucid definition of environment, thus;
Environment includes water, air, land and all plants and human beings and/or animals living there in and the inter- relationships which exist among these or any of them.
From the above definitions, the term environment‟ comprises land, air, water and all the physical structures surrounding us. In this paper therefore, the concept „environment‟ refers to the „totality of space, time and socio-cultural settings of man and other living organisms therein.
Concept of Pollution
Pollution is the introduction by man into the environment of substances or energy liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resource as ecological damage; or interference with legitimate uses of the environmental (Millar, 1998). Environmental pollution according to Miller (1998) is “any addition to air, water, soil or food that threatens the health, survival or activities of human or other living organism”. Such chemical or form of energy that causes harm is called pollutant. The pollutants can be solid, liquid, or gaseous products or wastes produced when a resource is extracted, processed, made into products or used. Equally, it can take the form of unwanted energy emissions, such as excessive heat or radiation (Miller Supra).
Similarly, Moronkola, (2003) states that the United Kingdom‟s Protection of Environment Act (1990) declares pollution of the environment as what is released into any environmental medium as a result of human activity which is capable of causing harm to human or other living organisms supported by the environment.
One of the greatest problems that the country is facing today is that of environmental pollution emanating from oil exploration, extraction and related activities. Environmental pollution of the physical environment is of three basic types, namely; air pollution, water pollution and soil \ land pollution.
Pollution is simply the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that could alter the normal occurrences or distort the orderliness of the system. Pollution was also defined by the European Union 1996 Council Directive on Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) as “the direct or indirect introduction as a result of human activity, of substances, vibrations, heat or noise into the air, water or land which may be harmful to human health or the quality of the environment, result in damage to material property, or impair or interfere with amenities and other legitimate uses of the environment” (Gbehe, 2004).
Air Pollution:
This is the presence of contaminated or polluted substances in the air that do not disperse properly and thus interfere with human health or welfare or produce other environmental effects which result in poor ambient air quality. According to Nwosu (2005), air pollution has to do with the dangerous contamination of the atmosphere, which reduces the quality of the air we breathe.
Air pollution can be caused by nature and can be man-made. Some of the natural causes include volcanic eruption, whirl winds or wind storms, earthquakes and so on. While the man-made causes include wrong solid waste disposals, gas flames, oil exploration, production and use, industrial pollution and many other such factors which also have damaging effects on both aquatic and terrestrial life (Uchegbu 1998).
In Nigeria, ambient air pollution emanates from three major sources: energy generation, industry and transportation-all of which increase with population and economic growth while households, commercial and industrial activities produce a wide range of air pollutants. Other pollutants to monitor regularly for better air quality are what the World Health Organization (WHO) calls the “classical” pollutants. These are lead suspended particulate matter (SPM), nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and ozone particulate matter (term for the mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air).
The resultant effects of air pollution are: reduced lung functioning, irritation of eyes, nose, mouth, and throat. Others include increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis; reduced energy level, disruption endocrine, reproductive and immune system; neurobehavioral disorders, cardiovascular problems, climatic change and so on.
Water Pollution:
Water pollution occurs when a concentration of certain pollutants are introduced into the water or water source for reasonably long period for it to have some negative effects on the physical, biological and chemical qualities of water (Nwosu & Uffoh 2005). Water pollution takes place at either the surface or ground levels. Surface water includes such water bodies as streams, rivers, oceans, run-offs, lakes, lagoon etcetera while underground water consists of water that has percolated below the top soil and usually to an aquifer.
Surface water is usually polluted through industrial waste, faecal discharges or other dissolved organic solids, run-offs and chemical discharges while ground water is usually polluted by compounds such as lead. These eventually find there way to the aquifers. Water pollution can also indirectly occur as an offshoot of soil pollution. All these make marine life not hospitable. In Niger Delta and other oil producing areas, oil spillage is definitely one of the most outstanding causes of water and even land pollution (Gbehe, 2004).
Land/ Soil Pollution
This is the alteration of form and function of terrestrial biosphere through improper handing of human, household and commercial wastes. Soil contamination also occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground tank leakage into the soil. Such contaminants may include hydrocarbons, heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons etc. Hydrocarbons refer to chemical substances formed exclusively from carbon and hydrogen. Petroleum hydrocarbons are naturally occurring hydrocarbon substances and, depending on the length of the carbon chain, can occur in gas or solid form. These are formed by the decay of organic substances trapped within sedimentary rocks. High temperatures and pressure convert the trapped matter into hydrocarbons. Liquid hydrocarbon found in nature is also referred to as crude oil (UNEP Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland 2011).
These wastes are categorized according to their form and source. In terms of form, there are biodegradable and non-biodegradable. Biodegradable wastes are those that can decompose through microbial activity while non-biodegradable wastes are not easily decomposed by microbial activity and last very long before decomposing. Non-biodegradable wastes include such polyethylene-based materials as plastics and rubber. Others are glass and asbestos containing materials. Also, wastes can be categorized as solid or liquid in terms of form.
In terms of source, wastes are categorized as household, commercial or industrial. Household wastes include kitchen refuse, faecal discharge and so on. Industrial wastes are usually effluence and sludge while commercial wastes are wastes generated in the normal cause of exchange of goods and services (Onyilo, 2011).
Causes of Environmental Pollution
Oil Spills
Oil spill is one of the major environmental hazards in the Niger Delta. This particular cause of environmental hazard contaminates water, destroy plants and animals. The causes of oil spill have been attributed to poorly maintained pipelines, „blow-outs‟ of poorly maintained oil well and sabotage. Some pipes are rusty, some reportedly forty years old and needs major repairs (Onyilo, 2011).
In Kpeen community, Khana Local Government Area of Rivers State where Yorla oil field is located, there have been frequent conflicts between the oil giant Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) and the people due to oil spillages. This had in some cases led to loss of lives and properties. For instance, in 2011 a protest by the youths over a huge explosion which took place on April 29 at the Well 10 facility, Yorla oilfield, led to the killing of Friday Nwiido, a welder aged 30. The explosion spilled crude oil sporadically for days into adjacent farmlands, settlements, streams, swamps, lakes and rivers. Nwiido joined other youths of the area who were protesting the blowout and lost his life (Ajaero 2011).
In Bodo community, oil spillage affected some creeks such as Patrick waterside, Sivibila waterside, Sugi waterside and Kegborozor waterside. Thus, nose-diving the fortunes of poor fishermen in the area. This deplorable situation in Yorla and Bodo is replicated in other oil producing communities such as Korokoro, Ibubu and Nsisioken Ogala which UNEP identified as a community where people have been drinking water contaminated with benzene, a substance known to cause cancer, at levels over 900 times above World Health Organization guidelines.
In a recent United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, 2011) analysis on Ogoniland, UNEP scientists found an eight centimeter layer of refined oil floating on the groundwater which serves wells in the area. This was reportedly linked to an oil spill which occurred more than six years ago (Ajaero 2011).
In Niger Delta, farmlands, mangroves, fishes, drinking waters are gone due to oil spills leading to a lost of the ecosystem. Soil of farmlands are turned cakes of crude oil, fishes are gone due to polluted water, drinking waters are contaminated, crops are stained, witted and die due to crude oil, fumes from gas flaring visit the people with breathing difficulties.
Presenting the UNEP Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland in August 4, 2011, Ibranhim Thiaw, UNEP Director, Division for environmental policy, noted that it took more than 14 months to do the report during which period 200 locations were visited, 122- kilometer pipeline rights of way surveyed, 5000 medical reports examined; and 23,000 people were interacted with at local community meetings. According to UNEP, given the dynamic nature of oil pollution and extent of contamination, failure to begin addressing urgent public health concerns and commencing a clean up will only exacerbate and unnecessarily prolong the Ogoni people‟s suffering (Ajaero 2011).
According to UNEP reports full environmental restoration of Ogoniland will take an estimated time of 25 to 30 years and would need N150 billion. This will be possible through a combination of modern technology to clean up contaminated land and water ways, backed up by practical action at the regulatory, operational and monitoring levels, the report suggested (Ikuomola 2011).
Well Blowouts
According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) “blowouts” is oil industry terminology for a situation in which control of oil well is lost during drilling or operation. More frequent during drilling, blowouts lead to the release of hydrocarbons (crude oil, produced water and associated gas) into the environment. Often, such mixture will catch fire and burn until such times the well is brought back under control. Blowouts could be caused by pressure, corrosion and illegal tapping leading to oil spills and fires. Such fire or spill can take months before it could be brought under control. Bellow is a picture of a well blowout (Ikuomola 2011).
In 1975, Shell BP leaked 600,000 barrels of crude oil into the seas of Forcados terminal and in 1980; 200,000 barrels of crude oil were spilled as a result of Texaco oil well blow out. Between 1997 and 1998, more than 900,000 barrels crude oil were spilled as a result of rupturing in Escravos terminal of Delta State (Ogboi, E in Ikuomola 2011).
Recently, on January 16, 2012, there was another blow out at Chevron‟s Funiwa Field, 10 kilometres offshore. This has become the latest in the series of environmental disasters in the Niger Delta due to oil and gas related operation. This will bring about steaming temperatures, acidification of the waters and air miles around the natural gas rig, thus causing a great damage of marine life. Communities affected by the blow out are Koluama I and II, Sangana, Foropa, Bisangbene, Ezetu, and others, all in Bayelsa State (Ikuomola 2011).
Equipment failure:
This is another oil spillage factor which could result from poorly maintained equipment used in oil exploration and transportation. In May and December 2001, pressure surge valve of Exxon Mobil and SPDC opened due to equipment failure causing Qua Iboe terminal Tank Farm spill and Umudike II spill in Ohaji Egbema Local Government of Imo State (Ikuomola 2011).
Abandoned oil facility
An abandoned oil facility in the country is another cause of environmental pollution in the area. In Ogoniland for example, some containers are left lying around since SPDC were forced out of the area some years ago. Where such containers are not empty, there are no indications of the contents. Tampering with such facility may lead to fire outbreak. From the environmental point of view, UNEP notes that corrosion of such metallic objects leads to ground contamination by heavy metals (Ikuomola 2011).
Artisanal Refining
Artisanal refining means local and crude way of refining petroleum products. This involves the use of metal drums to boil crude oil whose fumes are collected in tanks through pipes welded together. This is common in the Niger Delta region where distilleries are heated on open fire throwing dark plumes of smokes into the air and increasing the risk of fire outbreak. Also, soil where such practice took place will suffer contamination from hydrocarbons. Bellow is photograph showing air pollution resulting from artisanal refining and the resultant effect on the land (Ikuomola 2011).
Improper Industrial Waste Disposal
Industrial wastes are disposed in the region without regard to human life and safety as well as its effects on the environment. An example is a waste disposed of in several hundred big bags of 1 cubic metre reinforcement plastic bags which amounted to 1,100-1,500 cubic metres of oil mixed with gray clay containing small rock fragments with seeping from the bags, forming puddles in the ground and leaching into the soil (UNEP Ogoniland environmental analysis 2011).
Sabotage:
This is a deliberate nefarious human activity on oil pipelines either for the purpose of making quick money or willfully making oil companies suffer loss. According Ikporukpo (1986) cited in Ekpo (2010), sabotage as an oil spillage factor accounts for 3% of the total oil spills world wide and about 33% of oil spills in Nigeria. For instance, in August 2001, several kilometers of the Trans Niger pipeline were excavated and cut in sizable lengths for onward transportation to buyers. This act spilled oil at B-Dere and K- Dere communities in Gokana Local Government Area of Rivers State.
Also in August 2001, ¾ inch plug belonging to Exxon Mobil were removed which led to Qua Iboe terminal spill in Mkpanak which affected vegetations, farmlands, and buildings in the vicinity of the spill point (Ugochukwu, Onyema in Nwosu & Uffoh 2005).
Gas Flaring:
Gas flaring brings about ecosystem heat stress and acid rain. Acid rain in turn induces the destruction of fresh water fishes and forests (Adeyanju 2004). In another report, Oladejo (1998) in Adeyanju (2004) noted that constant gas flaring in the oil producing areas of Niger Delta contributes significantly to the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide, which is a major component of green house gases that causes global warming phenomenon.
Consequences of Environmental Pollution in Nigeria
Adeyanju (2004) posits that environmental pollution is a challenge in most developed societies of the world; contemporary societies of Africa and Nigeria in particular also grapple with and or/tackle this menace in recent times. Our analysis of the negative impact of environmental pollution in contemporary Nigeria society would focus specifically on; agricultural and Hunting activities of the agrarian people, industrial activities of the urban based, Noise pollution, Housing, conflict and warfare.
Agricultural and Hunting Activities
The agricultural and hunting activities of farmers in Nigeria have far reaching effects on the environment and human health. The farmers do this by altering the lithospheric and atmospheric pathways of the hydrologic cycle, thus impacting negatively on the air, soil and water substances mostly used by man/biodiversity. Empirical evidence has shown that primitive farmers use fire to clear parcels of farm land, modify the soil by ploughing, alter the drainage by irrigation and introduce or breed new animals and crops. These activities no doubt alter the natural vegetation of the environment. Kelvin & Lewis (1994) posit that “in recent times, humans have destroyed enormous tracts of natural vegetation, excavated large areas of land, greatly modified the landscape, and even created new lands. The economic importance of vegetation to mankind can not be under estimated. Apart from the fact that it serves as a primary source of food to man, its provision of resource base to the building, manufacturing and pharmaceutical industries and as a fuel is inexhaustive.
Relatedly, the use and misuse of fire to clear land which sometimes could be used to help improve the quality of the soil in arid regions through adding fresh organic materials, experts noted, causes a reduction in natural vegetation. It also threatens wildlife, human‟s life and property as well (Ayia, 2009).
The use of fire to clear land either for farming and/or hunting activities produces secondary problems associated with the clearance of vegetation, such as erosions by wind and water and flooding. Continuous and frequent burning often reduces the capability of an area to regenerate itself and to replenish its natural vegetation, inflict the atmosphere with severe pollutants, thus endangering life and property as well as threatening the very survival of the environment, (Idris, 2008) in Ayia (2009). The simple fact is, what ever reason one may adduce for indulging in the act of bush burning and/or farming or hunting activities, it is submitted that the practice/act is most unacceptable in contemporary times and must be discouraged with all vehemence. More so, that its consequences far out weighs its advantages. This practice is mostly common among the rural farmers in the Northern and North-central region of Nigeria.
Livestock farming, popularly referred to as domestication of animals which is commonly practiced in the Northern and North central regions of Nigeria also has a major polluting impact on the land surface. Heavy grazing of cattle leads to trampling and compaction of the soil, thus reducing its capacity to hold water and alters its structure at the same time. This leads to soil erosion by wind and water. Although, grazing may have positive effects on the land because the animals provides feaces, a natural fertilizer rich in nitrates and several other nutrients. These feaces are sometimes washed into the streams and rivers during rainy seasons which serve as sources of drinking water for most farmers in the rural areas and thus, constitute health hazards-outbreaks of cholera, etc.
Similarly, the rate at which our forests resources are depleting is alarming. This deliberate removal of forest to create new agricultural land and/or for other purposes deprive us of the wealth of diversity and the potential use of many of their unique biological compounds often of great medical value. This act also upsets the nutrient cycles, especially the oxygen and carbon dioxide cycles of which trees form an important component. It also scare wildlife. Deforestation may increase water flow over the land‟s surface, as rain will fall directly to the ground, no longer being impeded by the vegetational cover (Adeyanju 2004). This practice may lead to an increase in the magnitude and frequency of flooding, soil erosion increased sediment loads in rivers, slopes instability, and degradation of adjacent lands. Examples include forest clearing in southern, western and eastern Nigeria, clearing of tropical rainforest in Colombia, the destruction of rain forest in Madagascar etc. Forest clearing leads to vegetational removal which increases infertility of land and subsequently desertification (Adeyanju 2004).
Rural farmers sometimes out of ignorance over fertilize their farms because they are not aware of the nutrient content of the soil upon which they farm. This practice also damage the soil tops and result to poor yields. In another development, indiscriminate use of profilegate pesticide against pests and mosquitoes by farmers and households has caused serious problems. Many pesticides move through the air, water and soil and bio accumulate or bio concentrate in food chains leading to serious ecological and human health problems.
Hunting is also one of the human activities that often result to bush burning and the use of chemicals in our streams, rivers and seas in search of game. In most general sense, hunting is the pursuit of a target. It is commonly applied to the practice of pursuing animals to capture or kill them for sports, food, or trade in their products. Animals so hunted are referred to as game animals. Hunting is also done to control varmint populations or a wild life management to reduce animal population which have exceeded the capacity of their range or when individual animals have become a danger to humans. Some times they are captured and kept in zoos and wildlife parks for tourist activities and cultural carnivals (Gbehe 2004). Various devices are used to capture and kill the animals. Many hunters use dogs, traps, spears, arrows, guns, knifes etc. Plants, animals, including fish and birds are hunted for by man. The methods employed create a lot of negative impacts on the environment. For instance, bush burning which is common in the tropics – is a device used by hunters to drive animals to advantage locations. The rural Tiv people of North central Nigeria use this device to hunt for rats and other animals. The result of this is that sometimes it destroys lives and property, especially when the fire is out of control. Smokes from the fire (bush burning) also contaminates the air, land and water. Many habitats are also destroyed. Moreover as plants and animals are destroyed the ecosystem is generally upset. Fish hunting has made the water-streams, rivers and sea environments to be heavily polluted, due to the use of dangerous chemicals.
Industrial activities
Just as Gbehe (2004) pointed out, the causes of most environmental challenges take their origins in the developmental process or in its failure and inadequacies. As human societies continue to change from traditionalism to modernism with rapid technological advancement and increasing industrial production to satisfy growing human needs and comforts to improve civilization, new life styles and increased production activities have created unexpected industrial pollution.
The environment is highly polluted in the process of execution, processing and disposal of minerals. Mining is a process which involves the selective recovery of specific minerals from the earth crust for the benefit of mankind. Two basic methods are used. They are surface and underground mining which cause damage to the land and, the processing and disposal of minerals pollute the soil and water. In Nigerian cities; such as Lagos, Enugu, Ibadan, Kano, Port Harcourt, Benin, Warri, Kaduna, Yandev- Gboko-where these activities dominate, industries inject into the air pollutants that deplete the ozone layer. In the Niger Delta area to be specific, most oil spills come from vessels or involves pipelines, oil terminal and bulk storage facilities which are sometimes caused by accidental or deliberate sabotage (Gbehe 2004).
The blow out of offshore oil and gas wells, the dumping of drilling muds and oil soaked waste, the destruction of frilling rigs are major sources of water pollution in these areas. Water pollution kill fishes and other aquatic animals/organisms (Raven et al, 1998).
Different water borne diseases also occur. Others are epidemic, dysentery, typhoid etc. Corporation fumes, such as carbon dioxide, sulphur oxide, hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxide etc are emitted as a result of incomplete combustion of fuel and other carbon containing substances in exhausts pipes and plants. The adverse effect of the plants and machines produces objectable odour, causes impairment of mental function and foetal development and aggravation of cardiovascular diseases. Gas flaring in the oil exploitation zones reduces the quality of the air in the environment.
Dynamite used for mining causes pollution as it produces noxious fumes that cause inhaled can cause suffocation and lung diseases (Nwosu, 1997).
Animal health may also be in danger when they feed on plants covered by toxic particles such as fluorine. Air pollution affects vegetation when surphur dioxide enter the plants through stomata pores leading to the destruction of chlorophyll and disruption of photosynthesis in plants. Gases, like carbondioxide, methane, nitrous oxide etc cause green house effect.
Noise pollution
Noise pollution can best be described as unwanted sound caused by human activities in our societies. Simply put; noise could be any loud sound. It becomes a pollutant when it is unpleasant, and could be disturbing to humans and the public. In contemporary times, industrial activities of people in construction industries, recording studios, air and sea ports, transportation firms, in towns and cities specifically-Makurdi, Jos, Kaduna, Enugu, Kano, Lagos, Port Harcourt, Benin, Ibadan etc have not just caused noise pollution but have worsened the bad case of the already polluted environment in affected areas (Nwosu, 1997).
Similarly the proliferation of religious houses and places of worship with amplified loud speakers produce unpleasant noise sensation and irritation to the eyes, and when
especially when they are shouting at their loudest voices to the discomfort of every resident within 2km radius. Sometimes as early as 3 – 4 am, 4 – 5am when most residents are still sleeping – worshipers disturb the public in the name of prayers. These acts are mostly common in mosques and the new generational churches.
Relatedly, the use of loud horns of motorists/vehicles, heavy duty, trains, etc at their loudest level in towns and cities is another disturbing issue of noise pollution. In a similar vein, due to the challenges faced from the public power supply-generating sets from individual residents and business firms make a hell of noise, thus, causing disturbance to the public (Nwosu, 1997).
Irrespective of the devastations caused by noise pollution, the subject matter has not been given scholarly attention. Nyakuma (2002) pointed out that the world seem to ignore the effects, to the extent that when issues of pollution are discussed at world environmental conferences and seminars, noise pollution is given very little cognizance.
Research has however shown that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends an industrial noise limit of 75 Decibels (dB) so, much that any sound level above 75 dB is already a pollutant. Nevertheless in dance halls, recording centres, air ports, rail terminals etc. noise is normally heard above 115 dB sound level that must be avoided. This has to be avoided because, at this level, short or long term effects alike that can cause damage to the tympanic membrane – the ear drum is likely to occur. This may either be injurious to the ear or lead to lost of hearing ability – which may result to deafness to the affected members of the society (Nwosu, 1997).
Housing
Housing is one of the basic needs of humans. Like food and clothing, housing is a basic human requirement, (Onokerhoraye & Omuta, 1994). These scholars have accordingly, stated that the provision of good housing not only have profound influence on the health, efficiency and well being of members of a community and/or society but the entire community and society at large. It has been observed therefore that unplanned housing projects with inadequate sewage system constitute a major source of water pollution in Nigeria, especially in urban environments. Emphasis is on urban areas because, urban centres have a greater concentration of people in one area. Gbehe (2004), citing Inyang (1978) stated that “the greater the concentration of people, the greater the amount of pollution; and the greater the sophistication of a society the more intricate and poignant its pollution”.
It is on record that sewage and waste products are discharged into water bodies, scientific evidence has also shown that residents in many instances delight in defecating on the ground surface, sometimes directly into nearby streams (Gbehe 2004) and/or water channels. They also liter the environment with polythene bags, empties of caned foods and drinks, sachet- water bags and so on. This development combined with solid waters generated in households which are also dunped in water channels, streams and rivers in some cases blocked the courses of these channels, streams and rivers resulting to flooding. In the early month (2012) flooding in Lagos rendered most residents in some parts of Victoria Island Ajegunle etc in Lagos-homeless. Similarly, in Taraba State, a suspension bridge had to be stretched across river Donga for commuters to pass through, following the destruction of the bridge by flood in September 2011. also in Benin city Okafor (1983), Onokerhoraye (1994) cited by Gbehe (2004) observed that the Ikpoba River which flows along the fringe of the city was so polluted in certain portions of it that it may be mistaken for a cesspool. In Benue State, flooding is said to be a perennial problem that is prevalent in the lower plains of the Benue – Makurdi and Katsina-Ala rivers. Empirical evidence has also shown that land use along these flood plains has increased in recent times and floods tend to have destructive effects on both farms as well as houses particularly in Makurdi town (Lyam mostly rural farmers who depend on subsistence agriculture. The destructive effects on both farms and houses render the farmers into pernicious situations of poverty and acute want. Similarly, the flooding also results to increased siltation by the flood waters. This tends to affect much of the acquatic life which gives a livelihood to the riverine communities. Whereas flood prone areas in most cases are completely cut-off from towns outside flood plains (Nwosu, 1997). In the flood plains of River Katsina-Ala especially along the plains of Yoryor river in shikaan district of Shitile, apart from the destruction of farms and causing inaccessibility to residential houses, School children in the locality are completely denied access to the only L.G.E.A. School, and Mbagena comprehensive college Shikaan. Moreso, that there has been no bridge across the river. They only come to school during the off seasons of rain (Nwosu, 1997).
In most cities and towns in Nigeria, solid wastes generated by residents where not properly disposed constitute health hazards to inhabitants and an obstruction to traffic by way of garbage heaps taking up large portions of streets. These wastes also emit foul odour to residents.
Types of Pollution and Health Consequences
Water pollution and Health consequences
Water pollution occurs when substances are introduced into water bodies beyond what the water natural purification system can handle; thereby degrading and making water unfit for human consumption and profitable use.
According to Moronkola (2003), the health effects of water pollution include the following;
It may lead to the outbreak of diseases like typhoid fever, dysentery, cholera, and gastro- intestinal discomforts and infectious hepatitis can result.
It reduces aquatic life by reducing the reproduction of fishes and by killing them as well multiplication of sea plants thereby disturbing the ecosystem balance.
Economically, commercial fishing cannot take place in polluted water, and the cost of controlling pollution is enormous.
Polluted water puts off those who like aquatic sorts for recreation.
Poor sanitation and contaminated drinking water are two of the most common environmental hazards in many countries of the world including Nigeria. Inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene account for a large part of the burden of illness and death in developing countries. Lack of clean water and sanitation is the second most important risk factor regarding the global burden of disease, after malnutrition (Moronkola 2003).
Furthermore, Industrial pollutants like mercury, chromium, cadmium, and lead are psoisonous when deposited into water bodies. They are also capable of entering the food chains and cause diseases in man,
Mercury is known to cause a disease called Minimata.
Organochlorine pesticides like D.D.T. in the agricultural wastes are non- degradable and move along the food chains. It may lead to biomagnifications.
Some industrial effluents can cause changes in colour, odour, and taste of water in the natural water bodies.
Contamination of water also leads to the spread of water-borne diseases such as cholera, amoebiasis and other diseases (Moronkola 2003).
Air Pollution and Health Consequences
Most of the health effects of air pollution on a man may be known in the nearest future by medical researchers. However, air pollution is majorly implicated in circulatory and respiratory diseases, eye and nose and throat problem. Many asthmatic cases become more traumatic in areas with air pollution. Gastro-intestinal disturbances, which may be due to contact of polluted air with food or drinking water in a community increases the prevalence of gastrointestinal disorders. The psychological or mental health of community members may also be disturbed through nuisance associated with air pollution (Moronkola 2003).
WHO (2010) divided air pollution into indoor and outdoor air pollution and explained the health effects; that indoor air pollution from solid fuel use and urban outdoor air pollution are estimated to be responsible for 3.1 million premature deaths worldwide every year and 3.2% of the global burden of disease.
According to Jande, (2005), in the year 2004, indoor air pollution from solid fuel use was responsible for almost 2 million deaths (3% of all deaths) and 2.7% of the global burden of disease. This risk factor is the second largest environmental contributor to ill-health, behind the combination of unsafe water with poor sanitation. In low- and middle-income countries, 3.9% of all deaths are due to indoor air pollution. Worldwide, indoor smoke from solid fuel combustion causes about 21% of deaths from lower respiratory infections, 35% of deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and about 3% of deaths from lung cancer. Carbon monoxide reduces the capacity of blood to carry oxygen. Symptoms associated with exposure to carbon monoxide include dizziness, nausea, headache, loss of consciousness and death. Persons with coronary artery disease and fetuses are particularly susceptible. Exposure to biological contaminants of indoor air that are related to dampness and mold increases the risk of acute and chronic respiratory diseases, including asthma. Radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking. Most cases of radon-induced lung cancer occur among smokers owing to the strong combined effect of smoking and radon (Jande, 2005).
In the year 2004, outdoor air pollution in urban areas was responsible for almost 1.2 million deaths (2% of all deaths) and 0.6% of the global burden of disease. Transportation- related air pollution, which is a significant contributor to total urban air pollution, increases the risks of cardiopulmonary-related deaths and non-allergic respiratory disease. Some evidence supports an association of transportation-related air pollution with increased risks of lung cancer, myocardial infarction, increased inflammatory response and adverse pregnancy outcomes (e.g., premature birth and low birth weight). Exposure to particulate matter, including metals, has been linked to a range of adverse health outcomes, including modest transient changes in the respiratory tract and impaired pulmonary function, increased risk of symptoms requiring emergency room or hospital treatment, and increased risk of death from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases or lung cancer. Particulate matter is estimated to cause about 8% of deaths from lung cancer, 5% of deaths from cardiopulmonary disease and about 3% of deaths from respiratory infections. Short-term exposures to ozone are linked with effects on pulmonary function and the respiratory system, lung inflammation, increased medication usage, hospitalization, and mortality. Reduced lung function has been associated with long-term ozone exposure. Short-term exposures to nitrogen dioxide, an indicator for a complex mixture of mainly traffic-related chemicals, have been associated with effects on pulmonary function, increased allergic airway inflammation reactions, hospital admissions and mortality. Reduced lung function and an increased probability of respiratory symptoms are associated with long-term exposure to nitrogen dioxide (Jande, 2005).
According to Ogundele (2004), air pollutants have negative effects on man’s health. Carbon monoxide from the motor vehicle exhaust is a common phenomenon in our motor parks, public parks and in some our metropolis in Nigeria where a long queen of motorcade results in irritation of the eyes or coughing due to fumes of carbon monoxide coming from the exhaust pipes of cars. He further noted that carbon monoxide is insidious because it is caused by forming a metal-stable compound with haemoglobin in the blood. This is termed carbon-oxyhaemoglobin and is a dangerous gas of cardio-respiratory diseases and anemia because of its impaired oxygen- carrying potentialities. Sulfur, an air pollutant is injurious to the body is that which results when fuel – contain Sulfur is oxidized. The gas combines with water vapor of the body to produce sulfuric acid, which because of its corrosive nature and irritation, affects human breathing by injuring the lung tissue.
Noise Pollution and its Health Consequences
Noise pollution is one of the environmental nuisances created by urbanization. Noise is gradually becoming ubiquitous, yet an overlooked form of pollution. It may not appear to be as harmful as other forms of pollution, but it is a problem that affects human health and wellbeing as well as environmental quality. By definition, noise pollution is loud unwanted, undesired or excessive sound that can have deleterious effects on human health and environmental quality. In Nigeria, two major sources of noise are loud – stereo speakers and car horns.
Moronkola (2003) asserted noise pollution has the following health implications: hearing problem, high blood pressure, stress, ulcer, aggression, the poor concentration which may lead to accidents and poor academic performance. This is an assertion of the review of “Noise Pollution & Human Health” by Hiral, Minarva, Pandya & Yogesh (2017) who listed the following as effects of noise pollution;
Hearing Impairment
Negative Social Behaviour and Annoyance
Interference with Spoken Communication
Sleep Disturbances
Cardiovascular Disturbances
Disturbances in Mental Health
Ogundele (2004) asserted that the study has shown that people who live in urban communities sustain a progressive hearing loss more than their counterparts in rural areas. A study by Esther & Victor (2015) on “Impact of Noise Pollution on Human Cardiovascular System” revealed that apart from Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL), exposure to continuous or high levels of noise can cause several adverse health effects the cardiovascular system. In the study, the effects of industrial noise on the cardiovascular system were assessed in workers of lock factories, which were exposed to industrial noise levels exceeding 80 dB. Exposure to noise disturbs sleep proportional to the amount of noise experienced, this effect of noise on sleep can, in turn, cause more severe and chronic health issues, and also, noise activates the body’s stress response which consequently initiates several reactions in the body. Prolonged effect of noise on stress hormones might be the possible mechanism by which environmental noise adversely affects the cardiovascular system. never lived or worked in a noisy environment noise were associated with increased risks of stroke, coronary heart disease, and cardiovascular disease for both hospital admissions and mortality in areas near Heathrow airport in London.
Radiation Pollution and Health Consequences
Radiation is a form of energy traveling through space. The radiation emanating from the decay of radioactive nuclides are major sources of radiation pollution. Exposure to radio-activity constitutes a great danger to health.
Radio-active elements such as isotopes of uranium, thorium, cosmic radiation also endanger the health of men in the society. The search for knowledge and bid to improve technology results in additional exposure through testing of nuclear weapons. Vijaya (2006) listed the Effects of radiation pollution as follows;
The effects vary from organism to organism and from the level of radioactivity of nuclear isotopes. The radiations destroy the cells in the human body and cause cancer.
Longer exposure to radioactive radiations can damage the DNA cells that results in cancer, genetic defects for the generations to come and even death.
Kills foetus in the womb.
Affects animals, some species preferentially accumulate specific radioactive materials- oysters
Depending on the amount of radiation to which we are exposed and the sensitivity of each exposed person, the effects of radioactive pollution can vary significantly between individuals. While the exposure to high amounts of radiation generates almost immediately chronic diseases, cancer or even sudden death in rare cases of extreme pollution, small amounts of radiation can cause diseases that are not so serious and develop over the course of time. The risk of developing cancer increases with the dose of radiation, but lower doses of radiation can also cause cancer after years of exposure. Citing oluwande (1973) in Moronkola (2003), the effects of radiation pollution can be grouped into A, B and C. Categories;
A to mean Acute effects,
B for Chronic effects and
C for genetics effect
Health Effects of Land/Soil Pollution:
According to Shivangi (2016), Land pollution plays a very important role in affecting the health of human beings in the following ways:-
The land which is contaminated with toxic chemicals can lead to many health problems like cancer, defects in the human respiratory system, etc. as these toxic chemicals can enter the human body through the consumption fruits and vegetables grown on the polluted land.
Poisoning of ground water through the introduction of toxins like arsenic, lead, cadmium can cause birth defects, damages in various organ systems of the body like the reproductive system, nervous system, etc.
The disposal of spent fuel rods from nuclear power plants can lead to the exposure of harmful radiations to human beings which can cause illnesses like skin cancer and birth defects.
Visual Pollution:
Milan & Tanaya (2015) defined visual pollution as the whole of irregular formations, represents unorganized dumping of litters, billboards, cables, wires, worn-out buildings, heaped construction materials, graffiti, etc. that affects a person's ability to enjoy a view or vista. When one looks around, our first impression of any environment is the visual environment. This is a conglomeration of some constructed forms intermingled with the natural surroundings. Visual pollution is defined as the whole of irregular formations may refer to everything altered by human activities that are unattractive and affects people’s ability to enjoy or appreciate the view and vista. Causes may be multifarious, including administrative negligence, excessive advertisement, vandalism.
Health Consequences of Visual Pollution
According to Milan & Tanaya (2015), visual pollution affects the overall well-being and thus the quality of life of a community, reduces aesthetic appeal, economic health and civic-sense. This may incite a psychological aversion and thus affect the mental and physical health of neighbouring residents. The effects of exposure to visual pollution may be vast and penetrating. They include:
Distraction
decreases in opinion diversity
loss of identity
traffic congestion
health hazards of diverse kinds
irritability and psychological disturbances
eye fatigue
loss of sense of hygiene and aesthetics, feeling of civility,
The overall loss of quality of life of the residing community.
Children closely associated with visual pollution from childhood are generally bereft of subtle aesthetics, and they get used to this unsightly surroundings, even lose their natural desire to correct it.
When almost all urban and sub-urban areas are infested with the same kind of visual pollution, it naturally eliminates the uniqueness of each place and causes homogenization of our communities. Chronic effects have a deeper impact and may culminate to character-changing effects on the inhabitants. Children growing up being used to such unpleasant sites may have their aesthetic senses blunted and may not feel the need to stay in a pleasant environment. Such exposure may lead to the destruction of the centers of human aesthetical taste. These children may not grow their minds programmed correctly nor scheduled to deal with a lot of maturity problems. These cause chronic degradation in the way of life (Milan & Tanaya 2015).
Additionally, visual pollution can cause value degradation of property. It can deter the establishment of business centres at certain places. This can cause a reduction in the economic value of a place. The healthy visual environment promotes the values of those who live there, promotes civic pride and economic health of the community because all human beings are part of the natural environment. The inhabitants show an innate instinct to experience a good feeling when integrated with the beautiful Nature, which is reflected in the opinion of the respondents that they would prefer to visit the pleasant, picturesque places of natural beauty free from visually unpleasant sight to re-energize and relieve stress. Doctors explain emotions that result from a negative visual influence as an increase in the secretion of adrenaline, which raises the acidity of the stomach and rapid the heart rate, and thus speed irritability. They also explain emotions that result from a positive visual influence like, a sense of beauty, increases the secretion of cortisone in the body, and this natural cortisone reduces the feeling of pain, especially for those who suffer from rheumatic diseases (Milan & Tanaya 2015).
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Ecological Perspective of Change and Development by Wilkinson And Boulding (1973)
The theory is concerned with issues of change and development in contemporary societies, especially as they relate to environmental changes and/or ecologically related trends of population growth and the need to devise and sort out techniques of tackling development problems. The theory states that, as the population of a society increases in size, individual members of the society exert more pressure on scarce available resources such as land and other natural endowments for survival. They directly or indirectly carryout socio- economic activities that pollute the environment/society, and further cause harm (degradation) to the environment/society. The socio-economic activities, according to these theorists include subsistence agricultural activities of people in agrarian societies of Africa, Latin America etc and the commercial and industrial activities of people in Urban- industrialized societies of the western-Europe and North America.
The perspective further argued that development is needed when a society out grow its resource base and productive system. The perspective therefore posits that as the established economic system of a given environment/society is proved inadequate and productive system becomes more problematic, societies are therefore driven to change their methods. For instance, as the population of a society outgrows the available resources, especially in agrarian societies, people are forced to migrate to urban centres/cities in search of job opportunities. Some sell their labour, whereas some engage in several other commercial and agricultural investments such as livestocks; some still carryout some technical and entrepreneurial businesses – all for survival.
The urban and city dwellers establish and carryout industrial activities that equally pollute the society. Wilkinson and Boulding conclude that these activities directly and/or indirectly pollute the environment with its attendant consequences on biodiversity.
2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
In a study carried out by Ocheri (2018) on “Environmental Pollution in Nigeria; Types and Health Consequences”, the study found out that the environment is safe when it is in the order of what nature wants it to be. However, pollution occurs when substances harmful to living things are introduced to the environment of the living thing. These substances that make environment impure are known as pollutants and are of different compositions. Pollutants may be solids, liquids, gases or mixtures of them and they either cause nuisance or have a direct impact on the health of living things - man, animal, and plant. The paper further discussed the different types of pollution in Nigeria, the health impacts arising from pollution globally and recommends policy measures to reduce the health impact of pollution. It was therefore recommended that the government should monitor the implementation of laws and regulation against pollution and there should be adequate public Awareness of environmental issues such as over use of petrol vehicles, over the use of coal, oil and ground water.
Furthermore in a similar study conducted by Ityavyar & Thomas (2019), the study examined the issue of environmental pollution and its attendant consequences on the Nigerian society. In doing so, the paper on the basis of personal observation and secondary sources examined the effects of environmental pollution in Nigeria. The findings showed that environmental problems in Nigeria generally are many, diverse in nature, and are caused by man’s interaction with nature (environment) for exploits in a number of ways-both in the cities; where industrial activities predominate, and rural areas; where agriculture thrives. The paper posited that man utilizes air for survival, harnesses land and water resources for domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural and other purposes. Through these activities; man directly and/or indirectly create problems which are detrimental to his health/survival, well being, natural existence and stability. The paper also observed that these problems are a consequence of environmental pollution which also degenerates into environmental degradation and several other hazards such as widespread epidemics, depletion of natural habitats, and thus; impede the socio-economic development of Nigeria as a nation. The paper recommended awareness creation and change in attitudes for effective environmental and resources management strategies as a way forward.