REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework

Empirical framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Building industry

The building industry is the most complex of all the industries in the economy and the basis of its complexity is founded on the simple fact that, all other industries and sector of the socio-economy depend on it for the environment in which they operate. The building industry is to all practical purpose an all-comers affair (Akindoyeni, 2002). It is an industry where all manners of local and foreign materials, professionals and equipments co-habit in order to achieve quality buildings of high standard. The building industry plays an important and dynamic role in the process of sustainable economic growth and development of any nation due to its size and complexity. It is to be noted that up to one-sixth of the total amount allocated to construction projects by Nigeria governments takes the form of building as observed from past budget of the country. Whether a country is just developing like Nigeria or is already developed like Britain, buildings all over the world, constitute the most valuable assets of mankind (Chinwokwu, 2000). More so, while these buildings provide humanity with a great variety of accommodation in form of residences, mosques, churches, offices, schools, factories, hospitals, stadia, ports, hotels, and so on, it also provides employment for the skilled and unskilled persons. The building industry plays an important and dynamic role in the process of sustainable economic growth and development of any nation due to its size and complexity. It is to be noted that up to one-sixth of the total amount allocated to construction projects by Nigeria governments takes the form of building as observed from past budget of the country. The aim and objective of the building industry is to provide suitable accommodation for the whole community, of the quality that can be appreciated by the community, at the cost that the community can afford, within the time required by the community and within the capacity of the building industry (Akindoyeni, 2002). However, it could be deduced that the ultimate goal for any building projects is for such projects to be delivered within the shortest possible time, at the lowest possible cost, within the highest possible quality so as to minimise the problem and the burden of future maintenance and building collapse.

Buildings and Building Construction Collapse in Nigeria

Buildings are structures, houses or edifice built or constructed to offer accommodation/shelter to mankind or its handwork and or animals for day to day exercises [Chendo, 2015]. There has been a lot of innovative ideas and cutting-edge technology for mankind in ensuring safe, more beneficial and advantageous shelter for the use of mankind [Hamma-adama,2017]. According to Dimuna [2010], building design is very necessary to be produced but that it must meet the client’s fundamental requirement and must be able to fulfil the purpose for which it was conceived and also satisfy safety in all ramifications. Building, therefore, are constructed or built to have desired designed satisfaction, comfort and safety. If any of these becomes vulnerable, then the purpose for which the building was built has been defeated [Olagunju,2013]. Architects, Structural Engineer and Contractors are three main professionals required to meet the minimum or basic requirement of an economically safe, functional and aesthetic building. It was noted by Olusola & Atta [2002] that building, as matter of necessity, must satisfy buildability, design performance, cost effectiveness, sustainability, timely completion, quality and safety requirement in its designed lifetime. On the other hand, building collapse is the partial or total falling apart of building structural members such as roof, beam, slabs, and columns [Adebowale ,2016]. This is said to occur when it can no longer support the loads it was originally designed to carry which will result in building element having excessive deformation that becomes unsafe to both occupants of such building and the neighbours before it finally breaks up in shambles. Building collapse is not new anywhere in the world [Ede,2011]. It does happen both in the developing and developed countries but the causes of building collapse in Africa calls for serious examination while the causes in Nigeria seem very barbaric, callous, wicked and unfathomable. According to [Babalola ,2015], factors contributing to incessant building collapse in Nigeria is not easily traceable to usual human factors such as ageing, design errors, negligence, accident, force majeure, material fatigue, terrorist attack and other unfavourable environmental condition but that of a typical factor as identified by The Lagos State Government. These abnormal factors are identified as: inexperienced professionals, deficient foundations, under reinforcement, sub-standard materials, poor workmanship and hasty construction, lack of soil test, greediness, poor supervision and finally non-adherence to the codes of practice available in the country. This is further grouped as: poor or sub-standard materials, Ignorant of relevant building codes, outright deviation from building codes specifications, patronising of unskilled labour, lack of supervision, poor material, poor maintenance, overloading by addition of extra floors as against approved number of floors, professionals’ conflict of interest by trying to assume some other roles or filed of profession which appear lucrative at a time without formal and technical skill in such field before venturing into such, endemic corruption and propensity to cheat in cause of building construction from conceptualization to execution and acceptance. Hamma-adama and Tahar [2017] also noted in their research that the principal causes of building failure in Nigeria are that of substandard materials, defective design and lack of adequate building supervision. About 90.9% alluded to fact that sub-standard building materials ranked number three (3) amongst the causes building failure in Nigeria [Chendo , 2015]. The major materials being compromised are: reinforcement steel, structural steel and cement. Obot & Archibong [2016], researched into why building collapse in Nigeria, materials and poor quality control were on the front burner in the study. Adewale et al [2018] showed the Tables 1 and 2 and photographs below in their work to further establish the causes of building failure in Nigeria where building materials played some significant role in the collapse of buildings.

Construction materials in building industry

Building materials are materials or components (Natural and Man-Made) used purposely for construction of buildings in any location of choice [Omotehinshe,2015]. The two main categories of materials aforementioned may be further broken down as follow: Natural Materials such as Stone/granite/gravel or coarse aggregates, Sand and the like or fine aggregates. Man-Made Materials such as Cement, Reinforcement, Irons, Metals, Tiles, Blocks or Bricks, Concrete and etc. The construction or Building materials that are still being used today are dated to about 400 BC [Udosen, 2010]. However, several researches in our modern day life and technological advancement has modernized some materials which are readily available for use and in actual sense, these materials have been developed to adapt to harsh weather conditions and enhance environmental protection without depleting the ecosystem [Abdulrahim,2016]. North America and Europe, because of they are covered with forest gave rise to the use wood in the early time and in Concrete was first used by the romans and later the mixture of concrete and steel gave birth to reinforced concrete in 1849 [Bone , 2018]. Building and or Construction Materials are very essential and should be critically looked into because they contribute immensely to the production of carbon dioxide in the globe and could further trigger global warming. Therefore, building materials should be sustainable to meet our current need and without impairing on the future and still be able to meet the said future need [Dulaimi,2005]. Building materials constitute the highest percentage of input in the building components and according to Elkhalifa & Shaddad [2018], taking into consideration all elements or components that make up a building in terms of cost, the cost of materials alone in relation to all other elements, ranging from equipment, labour, finance, administration, space and acquisition is humongous and takes the largest share in percentage. It was noted in the UNCHSUnited Nations Center for Human Settlements [UNCH,1986] that of all the inputs in construction, about 50% to 80% account for building materials and that said it the single largest input is materials. Therefore, materials in the building industry cannot be over emphasized by saying then that professionals’ searchlight should, however, at all times be on the quality of material input in the construction industry. Borrowing a leave from the “Construction Industry Development Council Survey in India reported by Elkhalifa & Shaddad [2018] in the Table 3 below. It is therefore evident that in all the construction components as outlined in the Table 3 below, construction materials dwarfed all other components in an unimaginable percentage margins.

At this juncture, it is willy-nilly to further take a look at the contribution of construction materials to global warming. The importance of materials quality utilized in in the building industry cannot be over stretched in this short review and that is why this dimension of the effect of building materials on global warming is also worth considering. According to Marsono & Balasbaneh [2015], Building materials is one the main contributors to the production of carbon dioxide (CO2) which is released into the space. It was also discovered that of all the building materials being used for construction in Malaysia, wood has the list CO2 emission. It was suggested that wood should be giving more preference over other building materials in Malaysia because the use of wood for construction has dropped drastically from about 60% to almost 5% and that Malaysia is seen as one the highest generation of CO2 in the world. From here, it is noteworthy that selection of materials for building construction should be done with every sense of responsibility both to the local authority and humanity at large. The issue of sub-standard materials in the construction/building industry in Nigeria has been on the front burner in all medium of communication emanating from the professional bodies, government agencies, scholars and all building stake holders [Dulaimi, 2005]. The way and manner substandard materials permeate into every facet of building industry in Nigeria is endemic and curbing it has posed a rather herculean task to the government ministries or agencies saddled with such responsibility. In some cases, anyone in search of some quality materials is like embarking on a quest that is energy sapping either before the building commences or while it is ongoing. The varieties of standards in our market today leaves one wondering if Nigeria as it were ever had any form of standard(s) as to what is either locally fabricated or imported into Nigeria and yet there is an agency of the government called Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON). SON is the apex regularization body in Nigeria established under Act No. 14, 2015 which has the following aims and objectives:

Preparation of standards relating to products, measurements, materials and processes among others, and their promotion at the national, regional and international levels,

Certification of industrial products,

Assistance in the production of quality goods, and

Improvement of measurement accuracy and circulation of information relating to standards With the above well-crafted aims and objectives of the agency, Nigeria is still fully saturated with sub-standard materials.

It is also interesting to know that Nigeria, under the aegis the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, has an agency/parastatal called Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute (NBRRI) which was established on 1st April 1978 by the Federal Government. NBRRI was established to carry out some specific functions such as conduct integrated applied research & development (R&D) in road, building and construction sectors of economy. They are to research into both local building and construction materials to determine the most effective and economic methods of their use. The achievement of these two government agencies is commendable, hence there is huge responsibility beckoning on the Nigeria government to fashion out a way to address the menace of myriad sub-standard and poor quality material that have eaten deep into the fibre of construction and building industry. Hamma-adama & Tahar [2017] reported that quality of building materials being compromised is one the main causes of building collapse in Nigeria apart from faulty design and lack proper and professional supervision. It was also gathered that a lot of people in the profession believe that inferior materials have contributed immensely to building collapse in Nigeria. The materials that are easily compromised for greater gain are reinforcement steel, structural steel, cement, concrete mix and roofing sheet [Oloyode, 2010]. It was also noted that these materials ought to have been inspected, certified and approved by a qualified professional prior to being deployed to site while the onus will now be on the supervising engineer or professional to use the right materials with the right quantity during construction [Akanni, 2006]. From Hamma-adama & Tahar [2017] survey on the causes of collapse in Nigeria, 90.9% agreed to the fact that sub-standard building materials is the main cause of building collapse in Nigeria while only 9.1% disagreed. In their conclusion, it was evidently noted that poor or sub-standard materials is continued to be a conspicuous and disturbing issue in the collapse of building in Nigeria. Hamma-adama & Tahar [2017], pointed out three main materials which are the main causes of building failures and collapses in Nigeria whenever the quantity and quality is being compromised. These are: Cement, Structural Steel and Reinforcing Steel in ascending order. Ayininuola & Olalusi [2004] found that in Nigeria, the locals employed the use of some materials that have no root in the current design code. Nigerians use lintels with its dimensions as structural beams in the construction of buildings. This precarious situation can only be addressed by ensuring close monitoring of all building project. They also make use of hollow sandcrete blocks to transfer loads from slab but unfortunately, these are not designed for such which has resulted in slabs failures such as sagging and it ultimately affect the supporting blocks. These supposed loadbearing walls have led to collapse of several buildings. According to Tchamba & Bikoko [2015], the use of sandcrete blocks as structural and load bearing wall is rather on the increase in Nigeria construction industry. Ayuba et al [2012] reported that sandcrete blocks quality is dependent on how durable, strength and thermal conductivity. The quality of blocks also includes fire resistance, density, dimensional charges and efflorescence. It was noted that the quality largely depends on the ratio of the chosen constituent’s materials, compaction type and curing period. Tchamba & Bikoko [2012] concluded that part of the cause of building failures in Yaoundé and Douala is traceable to the quality of blocks being employed in the construction of building because they do not meet the minimum requirement. However, it was noted that most of walls act as load bearing walls and because the quality of blocks supplied to building construction site will not support the loadings placed on it, hence the wall will give way. It was said that concrete must be prepared with the right materials, specifications and quantity. Quality concrete is the final product of quality constituents and which must be placed rightly and compacted as may be required without leaving out the curing process. According to Tchamba & Bikoko [2015], the use of poor quality materials, poor concrete processing, lack of soil investigation, wrong choice of foundation type and lack structural design and detailing contribute to building collapse in Douala.

The relevance of quality construction material

According to Twidale [1982], the final product of crushing of rocks is simply granite chippings. Coarse aggregate (stones) is composed of quartz, feldspar and also mica. Biotite and muscovite are contained in mica and these are agents of oxidization and may get concrete strength lesser or weaken over a period of time. Since granite is good in strength, appearance and also resistance to weathering, it should be void of excessive crystals of mica-biotite and muscovite. A lot of care should be taken in selecting the right quality material for building construction [Anthony, 2012]. It is not out of place to carry out text on water to be used, sieve analysis on aggregates, tensile strength on reinforcement and also ensure there is a design mix to follow during construction. Odusote & Adeleke [2012] found that from the test carried out on rebars collected from collapsed building, it was discovered that the brittleness of reinforcement caused by the presence of high concentration of sulphur and phosphorous with FeS and Fe3 P present (deleterious materials) may actually have been responsible for many collapse of the buildings in Nigeria. It was discovered that the inherent ductility of the material has been greatly altered and compromised by these compounds which might have, invariably, aided the collapse of the building investigated. On a final note from the study, the results got from the investigated reinforcing bars are very brittle and therefore might have meaningfully contributed to the collapse of the building.

Choice of Construction Materials in Building Industry

Enno & Mohsin [2001] concluded that cement is the main binding agent in the production of concrete and therefore cement as part of the constituents of concrete was investigated to see if it conforms to international standard in Bangladesh. It was discovered that compressive strength was satisfied for 3 and 7 days’ test while that of 28 days deviated from the standard. Enno & Mohsin [2001] opined that cement procured directly from the manufacturer are a whole lot better in terms of quality than those sourced from retailers on the street of Bangladesh. It was also discovered that the mode of cement storage also affects the quality of cement and therefore may not yield its ultimate binding strength during concrete manufacturing. It was suggested that, since no cement brand was able to satisfy the 28 days standard compressive strength test until about 90-100 days, cement should be subjected to regular test to at least ensure quality is maintained in any developing country. Construction materials must be carefully selected before the design is completed. It is very important to further ascertain the quality of materials to be employed juxtaposing it with the approved design. Test on materials should also be carried out to further ascertain the quality of materials to be used in the building construction to be embarked upon.

Causes of building collapse

Buildings fail through mainly ignorance, negligence and greed (Bolaji, 2002). Ignorance has to do with when incompetent personnel are in charge of design, construction or inspection. One of the major areas of negligence is in specification writing where that of a past project is adopted without crosschecking those areas that need improvement, addition or omission. Greed on the part of building contractors e.g. diversion of building materials, cement in particular, meant for the production on the client’s site to his own site, the use of substandard materials so as to achieve high profit, etc. In discussing the issue of building collapse, distinction must be made between buildings, which fail during construction or within the service life and to those that fail after the service life, which is usually 25 years (Olusola, 2002). It can be deduced that the collapse that causes the greatest loss is that which occurs when a building has been in use for long a time or shortly after its construction.

Brief And Design Deficiencies:

The inadequacies in the brief supplied by the clients can bring about defects even at the inception of the project when client fail to give all the necessary information on the functional requirements of the building (Fadamiro, 2002). He further said that design deficiencies also come under calculation errors, bearing support problems, deformation, secondary stresses, elastic cracking, temperature and shrinkage problems, detailing and drafting problems, errors in assumed loading, changes and alterations in existing buildings, all contributing substantially to building structural failures, disasters and may finally lead to building collapse.

Foundation problems:

Foundation is one of the major structural members of any building and any problem arising from it will surely affect the whole building. Fadamiro (2002) averred that the crushing and collapse of concrete footing or other foundation members are usually due to unequal settlements which may be cause by changing sub-grade condition or by wrong assumptions in the design, inadequate or unequal support for foundations, soil and ground water movements as well as expanding soils. Hence, the most common form of abuse of foundation occurs due to abnormal loading situations especially in structures being converted to new use or having additional floors.

Natural occurrence:

One of the major natural factors that result into building collapse is rainfall; others may include temperature, pressure, etc. When there is a heavy downpour of rain, there is a possibility that one or more buildings (completed or uncompleted), somewhere, would carve in (Chinwokwu, 2000). The fact remain that this is a natural factor that cannot be stopped, buildings therefore need to be constructed adequately bearing in mind such uncontrollable factors.

Quality management:

The need for stringent quality control in material utilization within the construction industry in Nigeria today cannot be over emphasized (Olusola, 2002). The neglect of quality control in the construction industry has resulted in many defective and ugly looking buildings and the rise in number of collapse buildings in the past years. A number of factors influence the quality achieved in the Nigerian building industry and they are explained below

Material and Testing Variability:

This has to do with the difficulties that contractors experience in consistently obtaining and/or producing good quality materials as well as the ability of the client’s representative to understand the correct control values or make the necessary computation in the field. It goes further into the inability of manufactures to make products of the same sizes and specified quality at all times. More so, there is difficulty of the client’s representative in producing or interpreting field test results. It is often that many of them present on the field are usually no more than clerk of works put there by the architect to record the daily operations.

Contractors’ Variability:

This is the difficulty a client or his representative experiences on large-scale projects in having all the contractors produce uniform standards of materials and workmanship. Different contractors have their different means of production in terms of method of construction, technology involved, etc.

Poorly Skilled Workmen:

This sometimes in conjunction with contractors’ variability is one of the reasons behind the incidents of building collapse in Nigeria. The level of competencies of different categories of labour in Nigerian building industry (though varies from one city and contractor to another), through investigation, is found to be reducing day after day. It has been noted that even the workmen that went through apprenticeship training are no better than their master. Poor skill makes it difficult or impossible for workers to perceive and apply the concepts of quality control and limits of tolerance for building production (Olusola, 2002).

Inadequate Maintenance:

Generally, less attention is paid to maintenance in Nigeria as observed by Dare (2002). Normally, the maintenance of a building should start from the very time excavation is dug. For instance, if the foundation excavation shares before or after placement of concrete, it must be cleared and maintained because earth impurities impair the strength of concrete.

Unprofessional conduct:

Generally, it is believed that unprofessional conducts contribute in not small measure to the menace of building collapse in Nigeria. Such unprofessional conduct such as bribe collection from contractors, professional acting in the capacity beyond the scope of his profession, etc. has a negative effect indirectly on the building and may finally result into building collapse. The role of professionals in the construction of buildings in Nigeria is such a fundamental one (Adebayo, 2005). It is therefore a shame that a large population of building construction in the country still does not have the full participation of the relevant professionals.

Consequences of building collapse

Apart from lost of lives (mostly innocent citizens), many other people has been rendered permanent disable in one form or the other as a result of increasing rate of building collapse in the country. Economic loss as a result of this incidence is immeasurable in that many have been rendered homeless with loss of countless properties. More so, various site of building collapse scattered across the length and breadth of Nigeria is making the environment unhealthy as such collapsed buildings has become hidden houses for robbers, touts, etc. a very good example is that of NIDB building located in the heart of commercial area of Lagos state in Nigeria. Dangerous animals like snake have also made such buildings their place of abode, which is a danger threat to the people living within the vicinity of the environment.

Effect Of The Use Of Sub-Standard Materials On Building Construction

Economic/Financial Risks

Economic/Financial risks can be described as building collapse risks associated with money. These risks include: Loss of property, Loss of annual income/capital investment, Loss of materials, Bankruptcy of the investor/developer, Decrease in the contributions of real estate sector to the nation’s GDP, Loss of investment, Increase in the cost of maintenance, Shortage in the supply of real estate facilities, Clean up costs, Rescue costs, Cost of investigation/compensation, Treatment of injured people, Cost of rebuilding/repair, Cost of loss of functionality, Cost of replacement/repair of its contents, Cost of temporary relocation, Regional economic effects, Waste of resources, time and labour, Cost of legal dispute, etc.

Socio-Political Risks

The sub-risks under this category include: Loss of reputation and integrity of the contractors, Psychological trauma and shocks, Loss of new commission and contracts, Withdrawal of practicing licenses, Loss of trust, Discourages investment in property development, Loss of jobs, Scarcity of property, Loss of prestige of the owner, Shortage of manpower, De-marketing the values of industry professionals, Portrays Nigeria building industry as being corrupt, Professionals marketability to foreign firms/clients has been devalued, etc.

Human Related Risks

These are building collapse risks that directly affect human beings/human lives. They include: Loss of lives, Injuries, Disruption of educational activities, Loss of contributions from the victims towards the socioeconomic growth of the nation, Increase in death rate against the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), Leads the victims to permanent disability, Psychological damage (fear, helplessness, distress, depression and suicides), Disruption of economic activities, etc.

Environmental Risks

The Environmental risks in building collapse consist of: Provides hideout for robbers and hoodlums, Place of abode for dangerous animals like snakes, Environmental damage, Loss of functionality in the neighbourhoods, CO2 Emission/Pollution, Reduction in the energy use, Increase in toxic emission, Environmental studies/repair, Loss of building aesthetic values, Degrading of the environment, etc.

Physical Risks

These are building collapse risks that are often associated with the physical nature of the building that collapsed. They include: Structural damage, Damage to contents, Loss of functionality, Replacement/repair of structure, Replacement/repair of contents, Temporary relocation, Loss of strength of the building, Shortage of manpower, Increment of sick citizens, Street blockage, Evacuation difficulty, Travel distance increment, Damage of materials beyond reuse, Loss of fauna and flora, etc.

Law/Legal Risks

Legal risks associated with building collapse include: Exasperation of crises among stakeholders, Legal tussle among stakeholders, Arbitration/Mediation to resolve crises arising from building collapse, Conflicts resolution, Apportioning blames and arbitrary words of mouth among the stakeholders, etc.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The links between construction management (CM), and for that matter construction economics (CE) and theory, are not strong (see de Valence 2011). This may be one of the reasons why they have not gained complete acceptance as academic disciplines and are not seen as distinct branches of management and economics respectively. Another reason may be that products and production (the focus of management and economic theories respectively) are not the same as projects and project management in general, and construction projects and CM in particular. So, are management theories of production product-based or process-based? The emphasis seems to be mainly on the range of methods and techniques available to improve the efficiency with which products are delivered, although many of these products are management decisions or plans. Processes are secondary, because they are bundled with the production decision, and despite the appearance of diversity in the range of management theories, the approach taken typically treats the firm as a ‘black box’ that turns inputs into outputs using a range of capabilities (Porter 1980). These then are a productbased set of theories. There are a number of economic concepts involved in production theory. The important ones include returns to scale, price elasticity of demand, elasticity of substitution between input factors, and technological change. Technological change has the three aspects of rate of technical change, acceleration of technical change over time, and the rate of change of marginal products (of factors). These economic effects come from the underlying production process, or processes, that firms choose between when making production decisions. The economic theory of production focuses on the input demand and output supply functions under a technical constraint that describes a range of production processes available to a firm. In that case, could production theory be relevant to CM, because the delivery of a new building or construction project is clearly about producing something. A relationship between CM and the economic theory of production is plausible because both are concerned with technology choices. However, production theory is complex. The economic theory of production developed out of the classical concern with marginal productivities into a production function focused on substitutability of factors under a technological constraint. Can CM be reinterpreted in these terms? Would that improve industry performance? Can a theory be founded on the characteristics of the industry? A new book from Milan Radosavljevic and John Bennett takes on these questions. Construction Management Strategies: A theory of construction management (2012) attempts to provide that foundation by proposing a theory of construction management which identifies the actions which help construction projects and companies to be efficient. It takes on the challenge of creating a precise, tightly defined model of construction management (CM), using five clearly differentiated methods for the delivery of building and construction projects. It is an ambitious and intellectually bold attempt to introduce new thinking into the field. de Valence G (2012) ‘A theory of construction management?’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building, 12 (3) 95-100 96 What they don’t do is draw on any of the many theories of management or production available. On one hand this seems to be an extreme case of exceptionalism - that construction is different from all other industries - school of thought. In their defence, on the other hand, Radosavljevic and Bennett argue that construction is different, because it is complex: projects have a number of interacting teams where outcomes in the future depend on the number of involved teams, the quality of relationships between interacting teams and their performance variability. In addition there is also unpredictable interference which may arise from numerous external factors (p. 77).

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Olambe and Jinadu(2017) examines contemporary issues in building collapse and its implications for sustainable development in Nigeria. It explores whether the approach to construction by industry stakeholders is in line with the principles of sustainable development following the spate of building collapses in Nigeria. The rationale for the investigation stems from the view by scholars that construction industry stakeholders’ do not seem to consider the future in their current activities. The study establishes that the approach to construction by industry stakeholders do not match sustainable principles, and contributes to general under perforxmance of buildings. The paper recommends an overhaul of planning and implementation policies for building development regulations (e.g., building codes). The Nigerian government, as a major construction stakeholder should initiate sustainable construction measures and enforce this as best practice for the construction industry.

Comforta and Blissfulness(2016) investigate the factors influencing the use of substandard construction materials for the construction of residential buildings in Lagos State.The use of substandard materials for the construction of residential buildings within Lagos metropolis is experiencing a growing concern for both the government and the residents. The construction of half-lived and substandard buildings contributes to negative consequences ranging from rapid deterioration of building elements, premature failures of key building components, and sometimes building collapse. This study attempts to investigate the factors influencing the use of substandard construction materials for the construction of residential buildings in Lagos State. This research collected primary data through a cross-sectional survey of professionals engaged in the construction of buildings and building owners within the study area. Two sets of structured questionnaires were developed and administered to each of the groups of respondents, respectively. The collected data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools. The results show that factors influencing the use of substandard construction materials for the construction of residential buildings include corruption, use of quacks, contractor’s greed and selfish interests, and client’s financial constraints. The results suggested no significant difference in the perception of contractors and building owners on the factors influencing the use of substandard materials for the construction of residential buildings. The study concludes that the use of substandard building materials for the construction of buildings could cause structural failure, high maintenance costs, incessant building defects, and accelerate deterioration of building elements and components. Building clients suggest to engage professionals and refrain from patronizing quacks.