INVESTIGATION ON TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION ON THE INCLUSION OF COMPUTER SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter is on the review of related literature, the review was done under the following sub-heading, theoretical framework, secondary education, state of secondary education in Nigeria and public and private secondary schools. Other areas reviewed included curriculum theory and practice, curriculum Inclusion, prescribed standards for curriculum Inclusion, learners‘ environment, teachers‘ environment, quality of teachers, class and school population and school environment. The review also included organization and administration of public and private secondary schools, quality of a good administrator, empirical studies and summary.

2.2Conceptual Framework

Several authors have proposed different ways of conceptualizing the ways in which systematic education evaluation should be conducted. Thus, education evaluators have a variety of evaluation models to choose from when conducting their studies. The models are many and can be grouped into four as follows:

1. Goal attainment models
2. Judgmental models emphasizing extrinsic criteria.
3. Judgmental models emphasizing intrinsic criteria
4. Decision-facilitation models.

However, for the purpose of this study, the relevant model is the context, input, process and product (CIPP) model, which falls under the Decision — facilitation models.

The CIPP model is considered most appropriate because:

1. It concerns with context. Context centres on planning, which helps to define the relevant environment and the formulation of relevant objectives. This is relevant in assessing curriculum Inclusion, since the success of any curriculum Inclusion is tied to the environment created for its actualization.
2. Input which is an important aspect or curriculum Inclusion is part of the model.
3. Process evaluation is necessary for any on-going programme so as to determine its level of effectiveness.
4. Product evaluation helps in examining the output of a programme, and the noticeable changes in the behavior of beneficiaries.
5. The CIPP model provides a general framework for this study which seeks to evaluate the environment for curriculum Inclusion (context) the resourceshuman and material (input) the actual conduct of Inclusion (process) and the effects of the curriculum in the learners (product).

The CIPP model originated by Brandi (2000) defines evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining reporting and applying descriptive and process of delineating, obtaining reporting and applying descriptive and judgmental information about some object‘s merit, worth, probity and significance in order to guide decision making, accountability, disseminate effective practices and increase understanding of the phenomena involved. The model bas four types of evaluation as follows:

1. Context evaluation
2. Input evaluation
3. Process evaluation
4. Product evaluation

Awotunde and Ijebu North Local Government Area in Ogundulunwa (2002) agreed that the four types of evaluation

provide relevant information for four types of decisions as follows:

1. Planning decision to design objective.
2. Structuring decision of design instructional procedure.
3. Inclusion decisions to use monitor and improve these procedures.
4. Recycling decisions of judge and react to the outcomes produced by those procedures.

All these decisions are paramount in the act of evaluation of curriculum Inclusion in Kaduna State which targets the end product, the students‘ performance. The proponents of the model recommend that for each of the different types of decisions, a corresponding type of evaluating be used from among the context, input, process and product evaluation stated earlier.

Context Evaluation: This type of evaluation aims at providing a rationale for the determination of objectives. It is the most basic kind of evaluation that defined the relevant environment, describes the desired and actual conditions pertaining to that environment, identifies unmet needs and unused opportunities, and diagnoses the problems that prevent needs from being met and opportunities from being used. The diagnosis of problems enables the evaluator to formulate objectives whose achievement will result in programme improvement. In view of the fact that the assessment of curriculum Inclusion in Kaduna State aims at programme improvement, which the context evaluation is centred in.

The various methods for context evaluation are primarily descriptive and comparative. The evaluator is expected to describe the status of an educational setting and compare the present, probable and possible system, output. The conclusion made by the evaluator should contain the set of specific objectives for which an instructional programme can be designed and used.

Input evaluation: This type of evaluation provides information for determining how to utilize available resources to achieve the objectives of a programme. The resources required for any programme include both the human and material resources.

Input evaluation involves determining the following:

1. The nature of available capabilities of the programme.
2. The potential strategies for achieving programme objectives identified through context evaluation.
3. Design for implementing a selected strategy.

The goal of senior secondary education can be attained by using input evaluation methods since it seeks to promote, improve and sustain a programme.

Process evaluation: This type of evaluation is used to provide periodic feedback to the managers of programmes that have been designed, approved and are being seen. It is similar to formative evaluation in both aims and processes. Process evaluation has three main purposes which included to:

1. Detect or predict defects in the procedural design or its Inclusion during the Inclusion stages.
2. Provide information or programme decisions.
3. Maintain a record of the procedure as it occurs.

Process evaluators monitor the actual procedure in education m order to help educational decision makers anticipate and overcome procedure difficulties. This is similar to the functions of the 6-3-3-4 Inclusion Monitoring Committee and also the Inspectorate Units of the Federal and State Ministries of Education‘s who monitor secondary schools operations.

Production Evaluation: This form of evaluation seeks to measure and interpret attainment as often as necessary in the process of the programme and at the concluding stage. The Inclusion of secondary school curriculum content like any other educational level requires regular assessment in order to ensure continuous effectiveness and relevance.

Product evaluation utilizes many methods. According to Guga (2003) the methods

are:

1. Devising operational definitions of objectives
2. Meaningful criteria associated with objectives
3. Comparing the measurement with absolute or relative standards
4. Making rational interpretations of context and process evaluation.

Generally, the CIPP model emphasizes that evaluations most important purpose is not to prove but to improve indeed, the ultimate goal of this study is not much to prove but it is to provide basic information that would guide improvement efforts in the Inclusion of senior secondary school curriculum in Kaduna State.

2.3 Concept of Secondary education

In Nigeria, formal education at the secondary school level started in 1859 with the establishment of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) Grammar School Lagos by T.B.

Macaulay By 1914 there were 11 secondary schools in Nigeria all of which were situated in the south. However, over the years, there have been increasing awareness of the need, and demand for secondary education. This has resulted in the mass expansion of this level and indeed, all levels of education in Nigeria. To meet the increasing demand and still, ensure relevance, the National Policy on Education was formulated. The policy which gave attention to every level of education (pre primary, primary, secondary and tertiary) described secondary education as ‗education children receive after primary education and before tertiary stage‘ (NPE 2004). In other words, secondary education as perceived in the policy, embraces all programs provided by post primary institutions, which are not tertiary. Such programmes would then include those run by institutions such as Teachers‘ Colleges, Technical Colleges, Commercial Colleges and Business Apprentice Training Centres (BATC). In other worlds, what is conventionally called secondary school is only one of the several types that provide secondary education in Nigeria. This agrees with Obayan (2003:11) who observed that over the years, four main strands in the type of secondary education provided in Nigeria emerged.

1. The conventional secondary school, for which the term ‗high school‘, ‗grammar school‘, and ‗college‘ are used interchangeably
2. The secondary commercial school, a conventional secondary schools
3. The secondary commercial school, a conventional secondary school with a commercial‘ bias.
4. The secondary technical institution, mainly technical colleges an trade centres owned by government and a variety of skill development institutions owned by other bodies.
5. The teacher training college, institutions for the training of primary school teachers, which have since been phased out.
6. There is therefore, a distinction between secondary education and secondary school.
7. While secondary education refers to the kind of education provided by all schools

at

1. Secondary level, secondary schools are a type of schools at the secondary level. However, in line with the clarification provided in the Inclusion Guidelines (1988:44) which stated that:
2. All institutions which train post-J-S leavers for certification at Grade II level be called Teachers Colleges.
3. Post-J-S Technical institutions which are vocational-orientated be called

Technical Colleges.

1. All post-J-S Schools which comply with the core subjects of SSS as specified in the National Policy on Education be called Senior Secondary Schools;

This study sees secondary education as the education provided in category (C) and therefore, will only focus on senior secondary schools (SSS).

Secondary education as provided in the NPE (1991) is for children aged between 12-18 years. The target group for secondary education (12-18 years of age is within the adolescence stage of development. Adolescence as described by Obayan (2003) is a development transition stage between childhood and adulthood. It is generally considered to begin from age 12 or 13 and to end in the late teens or early twenties. Adolescence is said to be a period of emotional and social development.

Obayan (2003) have further observed that adolescence experience dramatic physical changes such as rapid growth in height, weight, changes in body proportion and forms, and the attainment of sexual maturity. Obayan (2003) in Okeke (1985:1999) has also observed that adolescents are faced with bobbing problems of life such as changes in physical appearance and the organs of the body. Because of both the rapid physical and emotional changes, adolescents, adopt role, engage in experimentation on things like drugs, sex, crime, alcohol and religion, as if asking which of these is really me or fits me? Where do I really fit in? Essentially, the adolescent at this stage is at a cross-road, seeking the right direction to go to. Besides, because of the transitional nature of the adolescent, he has been associated with various needs. Okeke (1985) cited in Obayan (2003)

identifies such to include the need to:

1. Develop saleable skills and those other qualities that make a worker an intelligent, efficient and productive participant in economic life
2. Develop and maintain physical fitness, healthy mental alertness, and sound moral conscience.
3. Understand the rights and duties of citizenship in a democratic society, being diligent and competent in the performance of one‘s obligation as a member of society.
4. Understand the conditions favourable for good family life.
5. Learn how to use their leisure time well and sensibly, balancing activities that yield personal satisfaction with those that are socially useful and desirable.
6. Develop respect for others, appreciate and respect ethical values and principles, ability to work and live cooperatively with others.

Broadly, all the needs can be grouped into three the need for moral, intellectual and physical development. The family and the school apparently best meet these needs. Speaking about the important role of the school, Okeke (2005) noted this: The single most important product a society has is the child: this child stands at crossroads when it attains the age to enter secondary school, what happens to him at this age leaves an indelible mark in his life. The way education is organized and administered at this level is therefore critically important for the way the adolescent grows, behaves and acquires the necessary values and kills for an ordered and functional life.

This assertion by Okeke underscores the dire need to effectively and appropriately implement secondary school curriculum. Discussing the need for moral training, Adesina (1984) observed that when moral training has succeeded, adolescents epitomized all that is beautiful in moral behaviour. When moral training has failed, however, adolescents show a tendency to be divided between their sense of right and wrong and their ability to control and discipline themselves.

Essentially it can be said that any curriculum meant for the adolescent, if it has to make real impact in the life of the beneficiaries, should be implemented such that it addresses not only the intellectual development but must equally take adequate care of physical and moral development. It is also clear from literature reviewed that adolescence is a transitional period. Since adolescence is a transitional period in the life of an individual that involves experimentation, trial and error, therefore, an appropriate environment and appropriate experience need to be provided to afford them the opportunity to embark on the type of experiments that would help them learn positively and develop the desired characteristics. This has much implication for his learning environment.

Adolescence is a period of perfecting skills that started developing in childhood stage, benefits much from physical exercises and activities. This calls for adequate games and sporting activities that will help the adolescent perfect his physical skills and social skills such as the spirit of cooperation, tolerance, sharing that are acquired through sports in essence, this fact about the adolescent stage explains the content, method, materials of the secondary education curriculum. The actualization of secondary education curriculum if it is to make any meaning; the peculiar characteristics of the beneficiaries must be given adequate attention not only in the planning, but especially in the Inclusion.

2.4State of Secondary Education in Nigeria

Different people have provided some insights into the state of secondary education in Nigeria. The comments and observations border on the state of physical environment and facilities, the teacher and academic activities, including library facilities, sports and moral training. Pemida (2003) had earlier summarizing the state of physical facilities in the secondary schools when he noted that the schools are characterized by; Dilapidated structures that are in a state of disrepair, with topless classrooms, lack of desks and chairs, broken down windows and doors and pot-hole blackboards and poorly trained teachers, lack of teaching materials and aids such as texts books and exercise books, chalk, dusters, pencils, and audio-visual aids, inadequate and poor feeding in our boarding schools.

Although some academics were opposed to the idea that academic standards have fallen, there was hardly any objection to the other assertions regarding the poor state of infrastructure. It should also be noted that while the assertions were valid for all levels of education, the degree to which each level was affected varies from one institution to another. Focusing mainly on boarding schools, Pemida (2003) observed that poor funding of public schools had led to non-availability of functional infrastructure. Where they were available, they were in a state of disrepair. She further noted that there were no adequate classrooms for conducive learning, tables and chairs were not available, libraries and laboratories are empty rooms and there were no current textbooks for teachers. Besides, teachers were not motivated in order to put in their best. Because of those prevailing factors, there was a continuous poor performance in public examinations and the consequent involvement of students in examination malpractice.

Speaking on academic and moral aspects, Okeke (2005) observed that the problems with our secondary education as identified by various people include: A very academic and narrow, not functional but a storehouse of rote learning and acquisition of inert ideas, selective and unrelated to the local experiences of the learners; foreign in content and organization, breeding for indiscipline; riots, moral laxity, disrespect for elders and arrogance, divorced from realities and the needs of the country.

Although it must be admitted that some of these problems related to curriculum content have been taken care of in the various curricular reviews that came up with the 63-3-4 system of education, it must be stated that issues of learning resources, indiscipline and moral laxity continue to thrive in our secondary schools.

Writing on the problems of education in Northern Nigeria, Agbale (1998:225) observed

that:

In the north there was a neglect of teachers welfare by government, no promotion, no freedom to instill discipline, hatred for western education in some communities, lack of employment after school, lack of teaching and learning facilities, large class/school popu1atim an arm ranging between 200-3 00 students, no desks and chañs, window frames, no school textbooks, no equipment. Trying to describe the state of education in Northern Nigeria, Arewa House (2000) at Northern States Education forum noted that it was characterized by:

1. Low level of enrolment at all levels of education
2. General decay in infrastructure, and limited learning resources
3. Inadequate funding of education which had generated shortage of instructional facilities and very unattractive condition of service for teachers.
4. Serious shortage of teachers
5. Lack of transparency in the management of education.

Baiki (2000) also wrote on the state of education in Northern Nigeria. He observed that by such indices as: Enrolments, dropout rate, performance in international and external examinations and admission rates into higher education, the picture created is of an educational system, (particularly in the northern states), that is operating at a dysfunctional level. He further noted that long military rule has meant operating education without a budget and depending instead, on the whims and caprices of those in authority.

The observation by Agbale (1998) Arewa House (2000) and Baiki (2000) while looking valid are however, theoretical studies and opinions based on either the north or the entire Nigeria, they did not reflect on the specific situation in Kaduna state.

Stressing why the teacher has lost his dignity in the society, Guga (2003) observed that this is due to:

1. Inadequate up to-date instructional materials to work with
2. Inadequate classroom and office accommodation devoid of furniture
3. Salaries and other emoluments of teachers not being paid regularly
4. Indiscriminate transfer of teachers without disturbance allowance
5. Promotion stagnation
6. Ridiculed with court or police cases for trivial issues in school
7. Exploitation, victimization by the supra-ordinate people
8. Teaching profession being governed by favouritism and sentiments
9. Demoralization of teachers‘ moral.

These observations, though valid did not embrace the entire reasons for the loss of teachers dignity. Some of the reasons can be attributed to the caliber of people employed to teach and the way they teach.

Agbale (1998) discussing the causes of falling standards of education in the north observed that it is largely due to:

a.The presence of lazy and untrained teachers in the teaching service

1. Frequent changes in textbooks and government policies
2. Presence of lazy and uncommitted children in the school system
3. Care free attitude of parents
4. Large school and large population
5. Lack of suitable textbooks
6. Neglect of the teachers welfare by the governments
7. Lack of teaching/learning facilities desks, chairs, relevant textbooks, good workshops and laboratories.

These observations seem to capture the true state of education in the north but they did not show the particular situation in Kaduna State in relation to availability of learning resources

Considering specifically, the state of Vocational and Technical education, Olaitan (2003) observed that this sector of Nigeria‘s education is faced with the problem of low enrolment for example there was a ratio of 37:1 secondary schools to technical college instead of 3:1 provided in the NPE; inadequate funding, and low public esteem. Besides, there was an overall shortage of technical and vocational teachers. The Ama Panel Report (1988) indicated shortage of 96.4%, the NERDC report (1997) indicated 74% in 23 different subjects; recent NBTE report with particular reference to technical colleges showed a shortage of 78%.

In another study Guga (2003) in a survey of some selected schools spread across the country observed that over 50% of the surveyed schools do not have workshops usually used for Technical and Vocational practical subjects. These studies were however limited to technical education, but did provide a global picture of secondary schools. From these assertions, one might say that secondary schools in Nigeria are characterized by:

1. Poor infrastructure such as classrooms, furniture, laboratory, and workshops.
2. Inadequate instructional materials like current relevant text books, chalk, dusters, audio-visual materials.
3. Poor feeding in boarding schools
4. Low level of sporting activities
5. Inadequate motivation for teachers
6. Poor performance in public examinations and examination malpractices
7. Poor funding of public secondary schools
8. Low level of discipline
9. Shortage of teachers particularly in the sciences, technical and vocational education.
10. Poor management of resources.
11. Presence of lazy uncommitted and untrained teachers.
12. Large school/class population
13. Low emphasis on vocational and technical education

The situation underscores the extent that students‘ academic performance could have affected in secondary education all over the country. This study in Kaduna State would be more specifically giving as an example of a deeper picture of actual lapses in the nation.

2.5 Public and Private Secondary Schools

Public school may refer to:

1. State school in the United States and Canada, a school funded with tax revenue and
2. administered by a government or governmental agency
3. Independent school in most of the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, an
4. Independent secondary school funded by a combination of endowments, tuition fees and other non-governmental funding.
5. Public university, any university operated by the state, as opposed to being a private enterprise.

Private Schools in Nigeria

These are schools established and administered by individuals and or corporate bodies to provide learning experiences along side government owned schools using government prescribed and approved curriculum. Many people like to go to private school in the nation of Nigeria. The city offers many private schools which can cater for those who want to be educated at the Nigerian private schools. Some may want to go to these schools for the standard of education or for the networking link which some feel they are able to build up by attending private school. Some may want the status or the value from attending private school. Some may want a school that is top ranked or high in status or both. They may want a quality education or the status may be more important to them.

2.6Curriculum Theory and Practice

The organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea of a curriculum. But what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized? We explore curriculum theory and practice and its relation to informal education.

The idea of curriculum is hardly new-but the way we understand and theorize it has altered over the years-and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. It has its origin in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was literally, a course. In Latin curriculum a racing chariot; currere was to run. Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it.

The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson.

In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice:

1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.
2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students — product.
3. Curriculum as process.
4. Curriculum as praxis.

It is helpful to consider these ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice in the light of Aristotle‘s influential categorization of knowledge into three disciplines; theoretical, the productive and the practical.

Here we can see some clear links-the body of knowledge to be transmitted in the first is that classically valued as ‗the canon‘; the process and praxis models come close to practical deliberation; and the technical concerns of the outcome or product model mirror elements of Aristotle‘s characterization of the productive. More this will be revealed as we examine the theory underpinning individual models.

2.7 Curriculum as a Syllabus to be Transmitted

Many people still equate curriculum with a syllabus. Syllabus, naturally, originates from the Greek (although there was some confusion in its usage due to early misprints). Basically it means a concise statement or table of the head of a discourse, the contents of a treatise, the subject of a series of lectures. In the form that many of us will have been familiar with it is connected with courses leading to examinations-teachers talk of the syllabus associated with, say, the Cambridge Board French GSCE exam. What we can see in such documents is a series of headings with some additional notes which set out the areas that may be examined.

A syllabus will not generally indicate relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. In some cases those who compile a syllabus tend to follow the traditional textbook approach to the subject, or- consciously or unconsciouslya the shape of a university course in which they may have participated. Thus, an approach to curriculum theory and practice which focuses on syllabus is only really concerned with content. Curriculum is a body of knowledge-content and/or subjects. Education in this sense, is the process by which these are transmitted or ‗delivered‘ to students by the most effective methods that can be devised (Guga 2003). Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit. ‗It is also because this view of curriculum has been adopted that many teachers in primary schools‘. Kelly (1985:7) claims, ‗have regarded issues of curriculum as of no concern to them, since they have not regarded their task as being to transmit bodies of knowledge in this manner‘.

2.8 Curriculum as Product

The dominant modes of describing and managing education are today couched in the productive form. Education is most often seen as a technical exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn up, then applied, and the outcomes (products) measured. It is a way of thinking about education that has grown in influence in the United Kingdom since the late 1970s with the rise of vocationalism and the concern with competences. Thus, in the late 1980s and the 1990s many of the debates about the National Curriculum for schools did not so much concern how the curriculum was thought about as to what its objectives and content might be.

According to Guga (2003), two American writers, Franklin (1918) and Ralph

(1949) dominate theory and practice within this tradition. In the Curriculum, Bobbitt (2010) writes as follows:

The central theory (of curriculum) is simple. Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciation and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularized. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives.

This way of thinking about curriculum theory and practice was heavily influenced by the development of management thinking and practice. The rise of ‗scientific management‘ is often associated with the name of its main advocate F. W. Taylor. Basically what proposed was greater division of labour with jobs being simplified; an extension of managerial control over all elements of the workplace; and cost accounting based on systematic time-and-motion study. All three elements were involved in this conception of curriculum theory and practice. For example, one of the attractions of this approach to curriculum theory was that it involved detailed attention to what people needed to know in order to work, live their lives and so on. A familiar, and more restricted, example of this approach can be found in many training programmes, where particular tasks or jobs have been analyzed-broken down into their component elements-and list of competencies drawn up. In other words, the curriculum was not to be the result of ‗armchair speculation‘ but the product of systematic study. Bobbitt‘s work and theory met with mixed responses. One telling criticism that was made, and can continue to be made, of such approaches is that there is no social vision or programme to guide the process of curriculum construction. As it stands it is a technical exercise. However, it wasn‘t criticism such as this which initially limited the impact of such curriculum theory in the late I920s and I930s. Rather, the growing influence of ‗progressive‘, child-centred approaches shifted the ground to more romantic notions of education. Bobbitt‘s long list of objectives and his emphasis on order and structure hardly sat comfortably with such forms.

The progressive movement lost much of its momentum in the last 1940s in the

United States and from that period the work of W. Tyler, in particular, has made a lasting impression on curriculum theory and practice. He shared Bobbin‘s emphasis on rationality and relative simplicity His theory was based on four fundamental questions

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Like Bobbirt, he also placed an emphasis on the formulation of behavioural objectives. Since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring significant changes in the students‘ pattern of behavior, it becomes important to recognize that any statement of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students.

We can see how these concerns translate into a nicely-ordered procedure: one that is very similar to the technical or productive thinking set out below.

Step 1: Diagnosis of need

Step 2: Formulation of objectives

Step 3: Selection of content

Step 4: Organization of content

Step 5: Selection of learning experiences

Step 6: organization of learning experiences

Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it, (Taba,

1962).

The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum theory and practice is that it is systematic and has considerable organizing power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives-providing a clear notion of outcome so that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated.

There are a number of issues with this approach to curriculum theory and practice. The first is that the plan or programme assumes great importance. For example, we might look at a more recent definition of curriculum as: ‗A programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. The problem here is that such programmes inevitably exist prior to and outside the learning experiences. This takes much away from learners. They can end up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it. The success or failure of both the programme and the individual learners is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behavior and person of the learner (the meeting of behavioural objectives). If the plan is tightly adhered to, there can only be limited opportunity for educators to make use of the interaction that occur. It also can deskill educators in another way. For example, a number of curriculum programmes, particularly in the USA, have attempted to make the student experience ‗teacher proof‘. The logic of this approach is for the curriculum to be designed outside of the classroom or school, as is the case with the National Curriculum in the UK. Educators then apply programmes and are judged by the products of their actions. It turns educators into technicians.

Second, there are questions around the nature of objectives. This model is hot on measurability, it implies that behavior can be objectively, mechanistically measured.

There are obvious dangers here — there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being measured. One only has to reflect on questions of success in one‘s work. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that we come to appreciate something of what has happened. For example, most informal educators who have been around a few years will have had the experience of an ex-participant telling them in great detail about how some forgotten event (forgotten to the worker that is) brought about some fundamental change. Yet there is something more.

In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units. The result, as many have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This can lead to a focus in this approach to curriculum theory and practice on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow sidelined.

Third, there is real problem when we come to examine what educators actually do in the classroom, for example. Much of the research concerning teacher thinking and classroom interaction, and curriculum innovation has pointed to the lack of impact on actual pedagogic practice of objectives. One way of viewing this is that teachers simply get it wrong- they ought to work with objectives. The researcher feels a need to take this problem very seriously and not dismiss it in this way. The difficulties that educators experience with objectives in the classroom may point to something inherently wrong with the approach that it is not grounded in the study of educational exchanges. It is a model of curriculum theory and practice largely imported from technological and

industrial settings.

Fourth, there is the problem of unanticipated results. The focus on pre-specified goals may lead both educators and learners to overlook learning that is occurring as a result of their interactions, but which is not listed as an objective.

The apparent simplicity and rationality of this approach to curriculum theory and practice, and the way in which it mimics industrial management have been powerful factors in its success. A further appeal has been the ability of academics to use the model to attack teachers:

The researcher believes that there is a tendency, recurrent enough to suggest that it may be endemic in the approach, for academics in education to use the objectives model as a stick with which to beat teachers. ‗What are your objectives?‘ is more often asked in a tone of challenge than one of interested and helpful inquiry. The demand for objectives is a demand for justification rather than a description of ends... It is not about curriculum design, but rather an expression irritation in the problem of accountability in education. So what are the other alternatives? Curriculum as process

The curriculum as product model is heavily dependent on the setting of behavioural objectives. The curriculum, essentially, is a set of documents for Inclusion. Another way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is via process. In this sense curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. In order words, curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. This model is a number of elements in constant interaction. It is an active process and links with the practical form of reasoning set out by Aristotle.

2.9Curriculum as Process

Teachers enter particular schooling and situations with an understanding of their role and the expectations others have of them, and a proposal for action which set out essential and features of the educational encounter. Guided by this, they encourage conversations between, and with, people in the situation out of which may come thinking and action. They continually evaluate the process and what they can see of outcomes.

Perhaps the two major things that set this apart from the model for informal education are first, the context in which the process occurs (‗particular schooling situations‘); and second, the fact that teachers enter the classroom or any other formal education setting with a more fully worked-through idea of what is about to happen. Here the researcher have described as entering the situation with ‗a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter‘.

This form of words echoes those of Lawrence (1975) who produced one of the best-known explorations of a process model of curriculum theory and practice. He defined curriculum tentatively: ‗A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice‘. He suggests that a curriculum is rather like a recipe in cookery.

It can be criticized on nutritional or gastronomic grounds-does it nourish the students and does it taste good? - and it can be criticized on the grounds of practicalitywe can‘t get hold of six dozen larks‘ tongue and the grocer can‘t find any ground unicorn horn! A like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then the subject of experiment. The recipe offered publicly is in a sense a report on the experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded in practice. It is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms that it is adequately communicated to teachers and others.

Finally, within limits, a recipe can varied according to taste. So can a curriculum. Stenhouse shifted the ground a little bit here. He was not saying that curriculum is the process, but rather the means by which the experience of attempting to put an educational proposal into practice is made available. The reason why he did this, the researcher suspects, is that otherwise there is a danger of widening the meaning of the term so much that it embraces almost everything and hence means very little. For example, in a discussion of the so-called ‗youth work curriculum‘ the following definition was taken as a starting point: ‗those processes which enhance or, if they go wrong, inhibit a person‘s learning‘. This was then developed and a curriculum became: ‗an organic process by which learning is offered, accepted and internalized. The problem with this sort of definition, as Guga (2003) points out, is that what this does is to widen the meaning of the term to such an extent that it just about becomes interchangeable with ‗education‘ itself More specifically, if curriculum is process then the word curriculum is redundant because process would do very nicely! The simple equation of curriculum with process is a very slap-happy basis on which to proceed.

There is also the need to reflect on why curriculum theory and practice came into use by educators (as against policy-makers). It was essentially as a way of helping them to think about their work before, during and after interventions; as a means of enabling educators to make judgments about the direction their work was taking. This is what Stenhouse was picking up on.

2.10Curriculum in Context

To round off this discussion of curriculum further attention needs be paid to the social in which it is created. One criticism that has been made of the praxis model (especially as it is set out by Grundy) is that it does not place a strong enough emphasis upon context. This is a criticism that can also be laid at the door of the other approaches. In respect of the work of Abba (2009) is of some use. She sees curriculum as a particular type of process. Curriculum for her is what actually happens in classroom, that is, ‗an ongoing social process comprised of the interactions of students, teachers, knowledge and milieu. In contrast, Stenhouse defines curriculum as the attempt to describe what happens in classrooms rather than what actually occurs. Abba further contends that curriculum as practice cannot be understood adequately or changed substantially without attention to its setting or context. Curriculum is contextually shaped.

First, by introducing the notion of milieu into the discussion of curriculum she again draws attention to the impact of some factors that we have already noted. Of special significance here are examinations and the social relationships of the school the nature of the teacher-student relationship, the organization of classes, streaming and so on. These elements are what are sometimes known as the hidden curriculum. This was a term credited to Jackson but it had been present as an acknowledged element in education for some time before. For example, John Dewey in Experience and education referred to the

‗collateral learning‘ of attitudes that occur in schools, and that may well be of more longrange importance than the explicit school curriculum. He argues it is those things which students learn, ‗because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organized but which are not in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangements. The learning associated with the ‗hidden curriculum‘ is most often treated in a negative way. It is learning that is smuggled in and serves the interests of the status quo. The emphasis or regimentation, on bells and time management, and on streaming are sometimes seen as preparing young people for the world of capitalist production. What we do need to recognize is that such ‗hidden‘ learning is not all negative and can be potentially liberating. ‗In so far as they enable students to develop socially valued knowledge and skills.., or to form their own peer groups and substructures, they may contribute to personal and collective autonomy and to possible critique and challenge of existing norms and institutions‘. What we also need to recognize is that by treating curriculum as a contextualized social process, the notion of hidden curriculum becomes rather redundant. If we need to stay in touch with milieu as we build curriculum then it is not hidden but becomes a central part of our processes.

Second, by paying attention to milieu, we can begin to get a better grasp of the impact of structural and socio-cultural process on teachers and students. As Baiki (2001) argues, economic and gender relations, for example, do not simply bypass the systemic or structural context of curriculum and enter directly into classroom practice. They are mediated by intervening layers of the education system (Baiki, 2001). Thus, the impact of these factors may be quite different to that expected.

Third, if curriculum theory and practice is inextricably linked to milieu then it becomes clear why there have been problems about introducing it into non-schooling contexts like youth work; and it is to this area which we will now turn.

Curriculum as the boundary between formal and informal education Baiki (2001) have argued that the notion of curriculum provides a central dividing line between formal and informal education. They contend that curriculum theory and practice was formed within the schooling context and that there are major problems when it is introduced into informal forms of pedagogy.

The adoption of curriculum theory and practice by some informal educators appears to have arisen from a desire to be clear about content. Yet there are crucial difficulties with the notion of curriculum in this context. These centre around the extent to which it is possible to have a clear idea, in advance (and even during the process), of the activities and topics that will be involved in a particular piece of work.

At any one time, outcomes may not be marked by a high degree of specificity. In a similar way, the nature of the activities used often cannot be predicted. It may be that we can say something about how the informal educator will work. However, knowing in advance about broad processes and ethos isn‘t the same as having a knowledge of the programme. We must, thus, conclude that approaches to the curriculum which focus on objectives and detailed programmes appear to be incompatible with informal education. In other words, they are arguing that a product model of curriculum is not compatible with the emphasis on process and praxis within informal education.

However, process and praxis models of curriculum also present problems in the context of informal education. Looking back at the models of process and compare them with the model of informal education presented above then it is clear that similar problem with pre-specification exists here. One of the key features that differentiates the two is that the curriculum model has the teacher entering the situation with a proposal for action which sets out the essential principles and features of the educational encounter. Informal educators do not have, and do not need, this element. They do not enter with a clear proposal for action. Rather, they have an idea for what makes for human well-being, and an appreciation of their overall role and strategy (strategy here being some idea about target group and broad method e.g. detached work). They then develop their aims and interventions in interaction. And what is this element that have been discussing? It is nothing more nor less than what Stenhouse considers to be a curriculum. The older key difference is context. Even to consider the whole hog and define curriculum as process there remain substantive problems. Scholars like Gay and Kerlinger (1986), have argued, curriculum cannot be taken out of context, and the context in which it was formed was the school. Curriculum theory and practice only makes sense when considered alongside notions, like class, teacher, course, lesson and so on. There is the need to look at the language that has been used by the main proponents: Tyler, Stenhouse, Cornbleth and Grundy, to see this. It is not a concept that stands on its own. It developed in relation to teaching and within particular organizational relationships and expectations. Alter the context and the nature of the process alters. One may needs a different ways of describing what is going on. Thus, it is no surprise that when curriculum theory and practice are introduced into what are essentially informal forms of working such as youth work and community work, their main impact is to formalize significant aspects of the work. One of the main outcome of curriculum experiments within youth work has been work, for example in the field of health promotion, which involve pre-specified activities, visiting workers, regular meetings and so on. Within the language of youth work these are most often called programmes or projects. Within a school they would be called a course.

What is being suggested here is that when informal educators take on the language of curriculum they are crossing the boundary between their chosen specialism and the domain of formal education. This they need to do from time to time. There will be formal interludes in their work, appropriate time for them to mount courses and to discuss content and method in curriculum terms. But people should not fall into the trap of thinking that to be an educator one must adopt curriculum theory and practice. The fact that so many have been misled into believing this demonstrates just how powerful the ideas of schooling are. Education is sometimes more than schooling.

2.11 Curriculum Inclusion

Curriculum Inclusion is expected to occur between component 4

(educational plan) and component 5 (evaluation and revision) of Kellough and Kellough‘s curriculum development model. Principals need to implement the curriculum with the help of teachers in an actual school and find out if‘ the curriculum achieved its goal. Inclusion refers to the actual use of the curriculum or syllabus or what it consists of in practice. Inclusion is critical phase in the cycles of planning and teaching a curriculum.

Implementing the curriculum does not focus on the actual use but also on the attitudes of those who implement it. These attitudinal dispositions are particularly important in educational systems where teachers and principals have the opportunity to choose among competing curriculum packages.

How should curriculum be implemented?

There are two extreme views about curriculum Inclusion:

1. laissez-faire approach or the ―let-alone‖ approach. This give teachers absolute power to determine what they see best to implement in the classroom. In effect, this allows teachers to teach lessons they believe are appropriate for their classes and in whatever way they want to teach such lessons. There is no firm of control or monitoring whatsoever.
2. authoritarian control. In this view, teachers are directed by authority figures through a memorandum, to follow a curriculum. Teachers have no control or leeway over the subjects they are teaching. The school head exercice absolute power in directing teachers to teach certain subjects in specified ways. In order words, this approach is dictatorial way of imposing curricular Inclusion in the classroom.

A realistic view of curriculum Inclusion should be between the two extremes. Teachers are expected to follow the prescribed syllabus exactly and make sure that they do not miss any topic/component. When teachers diligently follow a prescribed syllabus in teaching a lesson, then they are considered to have fidelity of use or fidelity of Inclusion.

To promote fidelity of use, one need to identify the topics or subjects that need more focus. These subjects are those that are more technical or more difficult. A structured approach to Inclusion is then followed, one on which teachers are provided clear instructions early on.

On the other hand, some topics allow or encourage teachers to be creative and unique in teaching these topics. Teachers implement personalized variations of the prescribed curriculum, but still be guided by it. This is referred to as adaption to the curriculum or process orientation. Process orientation came as a response to the need to acknowledge different organizational concepts and varying teachers‘ needs and abilities that would require on-site modification.

2.12 Prescribed Standards for Curriculum Inclusion

Curriculum Inclusion has been noted earlier to involve the interaction of human and material resources with methods and content. It entails the coordination of content, and resources using varying methods in such a way that learners derive required or desired benefit. But because Inclusion vary in their experience, orientation, philosophy and understanding, they are liable to attach different interpretations to curricular implement. To ensure uniformity in Inclusion, some minimum standards have been prescribed for the proprietors of secondary schools in Nigeria. These minimum standards according to Nkom (1999:36) can be grouped into three main areas environments to include the learner, the teacher and the physical school environment.

Explaining what these three environments stand for; he further noted that the standards in the learner environment are those that aimed at ensuring the learner attains appropriate maturation levels physically, mentally and psychologically, for entrance or movement from one class or education level to another. These embrace the school age and the school routine.

The teacher‘s environment concerns with what the teacher needs to be able to

perform in his task of assisting the learner to learn. It includes the kind and level of his training, certification, the number of learners he can cope with and how he is to carry his assignment including writing lesson notes, and how he should be motivated to do his work. That embraces the quality of teachers, method of teaching, number of learners per teacher and teachers‘ welfare.

The learners‘ environment as Nkom (1999) further explained includes specifications that are provided based on the curriculum or the activities that are to be undertaken for attaining the goals of the school. The facilities include the physical spaces and how the should be fitted out and furnished. It includes the balance between all the environments; learner — teacher — facilities. It also includes time allocation and time management. It is believed that if each of these ones is appropriately handled, then the learner can be developed intellectually, morally and physically. Literature on each of the environment is examined accordingly.

2.12 Empirical Studies

There are abundant studies on curriculum Inclusion. For instance, Bouro

(2000) examined the effects of teacher‘s strategies and material resources on the Inclusion of 1985 curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools in Fine Art. The study focused on 270 SS II and if students offering Fine Art in three northern States of Kaduna, Ijebu North Local Government Area in Ogun and Kogi. (a) Two sets of questionnaire (one for teachers and another for students) were used for data collection. Percentages were used in computing the data collected while the Chi-square was used in the analysis of data procured from testing the hypotheses. Major findings were that materials, equipment and facilities were not available in the schools, the time allotted to, and methods used for teaching were found inadequate. (b) He therefore, recommended that untrained art teachers be encouraged to go for Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE), unqualified art teachers should be sponsored for further training, supply of art equipment and facilities should be taken seriously, art teachers should used excursion or school visits. The study is related to the present study in the sense that it was concerned with some of the variables this study was concerned with teaching strategies and materials. It was however, differed to the extent that it was only focused on the effects of the variables. More so, it was only concerned with the effects the teaching or Fine Art. On its part, this study looks at the Inclusion in relation to the entire school curriculum. It will therefore, provided a broader picture of the entire school curriculum Inclusion. This study shall narrow all the gaps the previous study did not cover or bridge.

Kadiri (2004), studied the effects of Interactive Teaching Techniques and strategies on Secondary School Students achievement in Social Studies. The study focused on 240 JS if students sampled from four selected education zones of Kano State. Using pretest chi-square group research design, the study found that irrespective of gender, location, school type, interactive teaching techniques could raise the level of student‘s performance in Social Studies. The study related to the present study in that it considered one very important aspect of curriculum Inclusion that this study was concerned with the teaching methods. It has proved the fact that the methods teachers used, affected influenced the level of students understanding. It, however, differed from this study in that it did not look at other variables of curriculum Inclusion such as resources, time, and teachers. If also did not examine what was operational in the school, which was what this study was basically concerned with. Consequent upon the area left by the researcher, the current study was optimistic to narrow the gaps.

Kwasau (1999) examined the Inclusion of the 6-3-3-4 Christian Religious Studies (C.R.S) curriculum in selected secondary schools in Kaduna State. The study centered on how the C.R.S curriculum was beingIncluded at the SS level with particular reference to staffing, instructional techniques, facilities, text materials and mode of evaluation. Data for the study was collected from staff and students of 16 selected schools in Kaduna State. The study revealed that Religious Studies (CR5) teachers‘ use of group method, story telling and assignments were inadequate in the teaching of C.R.S. Similarly, facilities like libraries, theatres and equipment like projectors, tape-recorders, radio sets, television receivers and video recorders, as well as teaching materials like relevant textbooks, maps, charts, were either inadequate or completely not available. However, classrooms, conference halls and offices were said to be available. It was also observed that qualified teachers were not available. Similarly, in the area of evaluation, teachers restricted themselves to the use of objective and essay tests and assignments. Methods such as project, quiz, and observation were neglected. The neglected areas were considered by the current study and the researcher hoped that that the current study shall narrow or bridge this gaps.

Kwasau (1999) study was similar to the present study since it was concerned with curriculum Inclusion. More so, it focused on Kaduna State just as the present study. But the variables it focused on, instructional techniques, infrastructural, facilities and materials, staffing, evaluation technique, were only part of the ones investigated in the present study. Besides, it was only concerned with how the C.R.S curriculum was implemented with no attention paid to how the other subjects fared. This however, was concerned with the general atmosphere of implementing the entire secondary school curriculum. The unmet needs by the by the previous authors were optimist to be met by the current study.

Olorukoba (2001) study on the relative effects of cooperative and traditional methods on the performance of senior secondary school chemistry students had to do with part of the teachers‘ environment. It revealed that students who were taught using cooperative method performed significantly better in the achievement test, and they retained the concepts in chemistry better. Her study is similar to the present study it looked at one of the variables-teaching method/strategy which this study was also concerned with. It, however, differed in the sense that it was only concerned with two teaching methods as they affected the teaching and learning of chemistry. No attention was paid to other environmental factors such as the quality of teachers, availability and relevance of equipment and facilities, the learner environment which the present study was concerned with. These were the gaps the current study attempted to narrow Hinjari‘s

(1999) study on the planning and management of physical facilities in Adamawa State of Nigeria revealed that the planning and management of senior secondary school facilities were grossly inadequate and that there was a relationship between adequate provision of physical facilities and effective teaching and, learning. Besides, it was observed that some secondary schools did not have adequate of essential facilities for teaching and learning. The study used questionnaire and interview to elicit data from the subject of the study, drawn from teachers, PTA, and students I Adamawa State. Hinjari‘s study had to do with physical facilities and how they affect teaching, which forms part of this study. The use of questionnaire and interview to elicit data formed part of the instruments used in this study. But beyond the effects of physical facilities on teaching, this study developed into other variables related to curriculum Inclusion such as the teachers‘ personality, methodology, students‘ environment such as age and the daily routine of the school. The current study is optimistic to fill the gap left by the former author.

Looking at the state of secondary education in Kwara State, Adewara (1999:2832) (a) adopted the descriptive survey design A total of 586 subjects made up of 260 principals and vice principals, and 59 ministry officials. To collect data, a questionnaire and a structured interview scheduled were used. Frequency distribution analysis‘ of variance (ANOVA) and the Turkey‘s method of multiple comparison were used for data analyses. The finding revealed that secondary education in Kwara State was best with myriads of problems that have made it difficult for it to be efficient. The problems according to her can be categorized into resources and facilities. On resources she noted that there was inadequate funding and shortage of teachers and supportive staff to teach core subjects like sciences, mathematics, English, Vocational and Technical Education. On facilities, she noted that there was shortage of classrooms in both urban and rural schools. This has led to congestion in the classrooms and unsatisfactory pupil teacher ratio. For example, average class population ranged from 44-64 students. There was also shortage of facilities such as type-writers or computers, vehicles for the inspectorate staff for routine inspection, no workshops, laboratories. While this provided empirical report and essential highlights on the educational situation, it must be noted that it focused on Kwara State only and the report only covered the period of 1980-1995. What has happened since 1995 cannot be accounted for in the report. The current study is to take care of the previous lapses and the changes necessitated by time.

Kolo (2004), investigated into the readiness of secondary schools in Kaduna State to absorb the products of Universal Basic Education (UBE). Respondents were selected from all the 1 2Educational Inspectorate zones spread over three senatorial zones. They included teachers, parents and students. The study found that number and quality of teachers, library and sanitary facilities, laboratories and workshops, chemicals, textbooks, medical and secretarial facilities were either not available or where available, were inadequate. Although they mainly sought to determine the readiness of the school for UBE products; it was similar to this study in the sense that it actually assessed the readiness of the schools for effective curriculum Inclusion. It, however, was differed in the sense that, it gave no attention to the actual Inclusion of the curriculum in the schools, which the present study laid much emphasis on.

Denga (2001) studied teacher‘s attitude to the Inclusion of the 6-3-3-4 system of secondary education in Nigeria, the descriptive survey research design was used. The study centered on a sampled population of 985 teachers made up of 645 males and 340 females drawn from an estimated teacher population of about 1,046,400. Some final year students were also selected for interview. The instrument used for data collection were structured questionnaire and structured interview schedule. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyze nominal data. The one-way analysis of variance (CANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis postulated. The main findings showed that teachers were not conversant with various methods of teaching, there was dearth of both human and material resources, teachers, taught in areas other than areas of their specialization, teachers were not oriented in implementing continuous assessment instruments and schemes, classes were over populated, no proper incentives for teachers, teachers were not sponsored to conferences; government was responsible for the gap between policies and Inclusion.

The study was related to the present study since it touched the issues of teachers and secondary school curriculum Inclusion, issues that were central to the current study. It was however differed since it was mainly concerned with teachers‘ attitude to curriculum Inclusion at both the and senior secondary schools. It did not consider other variables of curriculum Inclusion such as the environment, instructional resources, other stakeholders like the parents and students. These were variables the current study took into consideration. Consequently, this study will narrow the gaps.

2.30 Summary

The study reviewed the different perspectives of computer science and its Inclusion in secondary schools in Ijebu North Local Government Area in Ogun State. It also discussed the conceptual frame work, concept of secondary education in Nigeria, state of secondary education in Nigeria, publics and private secondary schools, curriculum theory and practice, curriculum as a syllabus to be transmitted, curriculum as product; curriculum as process, curriculum as context, curriculum Inclusion, prescribed slanders for curriculum.

Inclusion, learner‘s environment, school age, daily routine, teacher‘s environment, teacher‘s personality and training, quality of teachers‘ class and school population, school environment, physical facilities, subject offered, recreational activities that promote moral development, curriculum materials, organization and administration of public and private secondary schools, effective school organization, element of school administration, qualities of a good administrator, or principal of head teacher, empirical studies and the summary of the chapter. All these are to look into ways of propounding solutions to the problem of Inclusion of computer science curriculum in secondary schools in Ijebu North Local Government Area in Ogun State.