A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF REPORTS CASES OF CRIME (1995 – 2004)
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Crime
Crime is a public wrong. It is an act of offense which violates the law of the state and is strongly disapproved by the society. Crime is defined as acts or omissions forbidden by law that can be punished by imprisonment or fine. Murder, robbery, burglary, rape, drunken driving, child neglect and failure to pay taxes are examples of crimes. The term crime is derived from the Latin word “crimen” meaning offence and also a wrong-doer. Crime is considered as an anti-social behaviour. Each society may define crime in a different perspective. A crime may be legal or illegal. Illegal and punishable crime is the violation of any rule of administration or law of the state or practice of any wrongdoing and harmful to self or against third parties, provided in criminal law. Legal and not punishable crime is all acts of self-defense.
Elements of crime
For an act of crime to be accomplished, the following four elements are needed:· Individual: The first and the most important element for commission of a crime is an individual who has an intention and is prepared to commit a crime. · Mens rea: Mensrea in Latin means “guilty mind”. For a crime to be committed, a criminal intention is an essential element. ·
Actusrea: Actusrea in Latin means “guilty act”. For a crime to be committed, along with a criminal intention there should also be an external act. ·
Injury/hurt: The criminal act should be accompanied by an injury or hurt which is physical, mental or monetary which violates a law of state.
Stages of committing a crime
The commission of crime involves four stages:Intention: For the commission of crime, the first important stage is criminal intention. However, just having a criminal intention is not punishable until it is conveyed to someone else in words or by acts. Example: An intention to kill someone. · Groundwork: To commit a crime, prior preparation is necessary if the crime is intentional. It is difficult for the court to punish an individual purely based on a preparation plan until and unless it is executed. For example, murder, dacoity, etc. · Preliminary crime: An attempt to commit a crime is considered as preliminary crime. An attempt should include a criminal intention, an act towards committing a crime and an act of crime which is not completely accomplished. Example: Attempt to murder · Completion of crime: This is the last stage in commission of crime. The criminal completes the crime. A suspect is guilty of an offence only if he succeeds in his criminal activity. Example: Successful accomplishment of murder
Causes of crime
No individual is a born criminal, it is the situations and the conditions around the individual which make him act as a criminal. There are several causes which make an individual turn into a criminal. The main causes of crime are:a. Social causes b. Economic causes c. Psychological causes d. Biological causes e. Geographical causes·
Social causes of crime
The social causes of crime include the following:
i. Family disorganization: Family plays the most important role in an individual’s life. In olden days, there were joint families and there was always a family control on the children. In urban areas today, each member of the family is busy pursuing their own paths. The children are neglected and family control is lifted up and hence there are no restrictions. Individuals who are a part of nuclear families and broken families resort to crimes due to lack of love, affection and proper attention.
ii. Upbringing of the individual: Too much strictness causes heavy influence on minds of the children. Scolding and abusing children causes humiliation and irritation in children and they become delinquents. Moral values are imported to children by their parents. It is the duty of the parents to nourish their children in healthy circumstances. If the parents resort to illegal acts, the children will also do the same. A child is first influenced by his parents and then by his own brothers and sisters. If they resort to illegal acts such as selling block tickets at cinema theatres, the younger ones also tend to do the same acts.
iii. Defective education: Lack of proper education results in poor judgement and the individual will fail to distinguish between right and wrong. Ethical and religious education has no place in the modern education system. Even after completing education, many individuals remain unemployed. Late employment leads to late marriage increasing criminal activity.
iv. Hype created by media: Cinemas and newspapers have led to an increase in criminal activity. The hype created by the media relating to different crimes, modus operandi and the consequences motivate young individuals to resort to crimes.
v. Drinking and drug use: The consumption of alcohol and use of drugs of abuse are the most important causes of crime. Under the influence of alcohol and drugs, the person loses his sense of discrimination between good and bad and right and wrong and hence commits crime. This not only affects the individual but also his entire family.
vi. Unhappy marriages and dowry system: A marriage where a girl or boy dislikes his partner & remains unhappy and may force individuals to commit suicides. Dowry system is also a main cause of crime.
vii. Family planning: In poorer sections of society, parents do not follow family planning and they have a large number of children. But they are unable to fulfil the basic necessities of children due to their meagre income. To fulfil their basic necessities, these children become preys of pick-pocketing, smuggling, prostitution, etc.
viii. War and post-war conditions: Wars in different countries create unbearable social and economic circumstances. The individuals who lose their parents and loved ones during war become prey to bad habits.
ix. Social disorganization: Disorganization in the society or country may affect badly upon the people’s living. For example, prior to Britishers, Indian villages were very peaceful and self- sufficient. Due to the British rule in India, rapid changes such as industrialization, urbanization, etc. occurred. Joint families disappeared and nuclear families came in. Unemployment increased. India was split into 3 countries, i.e., India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. During the partition, immigrants flew from one country to another. The immigrants had no food, livelihood. To earn livelihood, these immigrants started illegal acts such as smuggling, weapon- selling, etc. Social disorganization causes decline in the effectiveness of institutional and informal forces and weakens the social control in communities or neighbourhoods. This results in crime.
Economic causes of crime
The economic causes of crime include:
i. Poverty: Money is the centre of life. Everything and every relation in this world is dependent on money. Poverty is the mother of crime. The poor people are unable to fulfil their basic necessities. To fulfil the basic necessities, they resort to crimes like burglaries, murders, suicides, etc.
ii. Unemployment: Many young individuals who are continually unemployed resort to suicides due to frustration. Some others resort to thefts, pick-pocketing, robberies, etc. Hence, unemployment is a major cause of crime.
iii. Industrialization and urbanization: Urbanization is the result of industrialization. The long working hours and the petite amount of money they get, results in individuals resorting to crime.
Psychological causes of crime:
The psychological causes of crime include:
i. Intellectual weakness: Weak minded persons tend to criminal activities very easily. Intellectual weakness is a cause of crime.
ii. Mental diseases: The person who suffers from mental disorders tends to do illegal and violent activities. Such individuals become unsocialized, irritable, cruel, obstinate, suspicious, self-centred, lonely, full of feelings of revenge, backward and hypersexual or uncontrolled in their behaviour. Such individual does not repent for his violent acts.
iii. Characteristics of personality: Due to social, economic or psychopathic reasons, an individual may turn into a psychic. An abnormal person possesses degree of freedom, irresponsibility, revolt, homicidal tendency, suspicion, lack of control, sadism, emotions, social maladjustment, ill-behaviour, immaturity, etc. He tends to do violent acts. He becomes naughty, explosive, disobedient and unsocial. He indulges in gambling, cigarette smoking, narcotic drug consuming, breaking things, absconding from house, prostitution, thieving, etc.
iv. Emotional instability: An abnormal individual possesses emotional instability. He does not like discipline. He suffers with inferiority complex. He indulges in criminal behaviour. He does violent acts with emotions. If his hero steals a diamond from Government treasury, he sees the picture several times and repeats the same act.
Biological causes of crime:
Many biological factors like age, gender, hormones, etc. act as causes of crime.
i. Age: Crime is more prominently committed by individuals in the second and third decades of life.
ii. Gender: On a whole, males commit more crimes when compared to females.
iii. Body type: Muscular body type individuals are found to commit more crimes.
iv. Hormonal causes: Testosterone hormone is the hormone which is correlated to criminality.
· Geographical causes of crime:
Cities or counties with larger populations have higher crime rates. Poorly maintained neighborhoods correlate with higher crime rates. High residential mobility is associated with a higher crime rate. More taverns and alcohol stores, as well as more gambling and tourist establishments, in an area are positively related to criminality. There appears to be higher crime rates in the geographic regions of a country that are closer to the equator.
Types of crime:
Based on the medium which is being affected, crimes are of the following types:
· Personal crimes:
Personal crimes are those crimes which target an individual person. These include murder, assault, sexual assault, etc.
Ø Assault: Illegally attacking an individual with weapons like gun, knife, etc. in a severe manner is called assault. Assault results in severe injury. Domestic or family violence also involves assault.
Ø Homicide: Unlawfully killing an individual is called homicide or murder.
Ø Sexual assault: Sexual assault involves rape.
• Property crimes:
Property crimes are those crimes in which the target is a materialistic property.
Ø Burglary: Illegally entering into a property and committing theft is called burglary. Ø Theft: Illegally taking away one’s property without force and without the notice of the owner. Example: Pick pocketing, Shoplifting, Stealing bicycles, etc.
Ø Arson fires: Deliberately putting one’s property such a building, motor vehicle, etc. on fire is called arson fires.
Ø Automobile theft: Unlawful theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle.
Ø Vandalism: Damaging public or private property without permission is referred to as vandalism.
• Victimless crimes:
These are acts against moral values of an individual. Commissions of crime like prostitution, illegal gambling, illegal drug use, etc. are examples of victimless crimes. Since these crimes donot have an identifiable victim, they are called victimless crimes. • White-collar crimes:
Crimes committed by individuals belonging to high society. The crimes are committed to a large extent in their work place.
Ø Embezzlement: Misusing money or property of an organization for an individual’s personal use.
Ø Identity theft: Unlawfully using a person’s social security number, credit card number, etc. for financial gain is termed as identity theft.
Ø Fraud: Deception of one party by another party for personal or financial gain is called fraud.
• Organized crimes:
are defined as acts which are committed by two or more criminals as a joint venture in an organized manner. These crimes involve kidnapping, dacoities, marketing of illegal or prohibited goods, money laundering, trafficking people, buying votes, etc.
• Juvenile delinquency:
also called as youth crime.It is the crime committed by an individual under the age of 18years.
• Computer crime:
Cyber crime is an act of crime that involves computer and a network. The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Net crime refers to criminal exploitation of the internet. Examples of the computer crime include cyber terrorism, cyber warfare, harassment on the internet, spam, internet fraud, etc. • Violation of public safety:
The violations of laws which threaten public safety are included under violation of public safety.
Ø Disorderly conduct: Acting in a manner potentially threatening oneself or other people.
Ø Driving under influence of drinks and drugs: driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs may prove threatening to the individual as well as the public. Constant checks are conducted by police officials in whom the alcohol testing devices are used.
Ø Terrorism: Violence against the normal people living in the society
Ø Corruption: is the use of power by government officials for illegal private gain. It includes bribery, embezzlement, etc.
Crime And Security Agencies
The failure of the security agencies in combating crime especially the Police remains top on the list. In 2002, a survey conducted by the Center for Criminal Justice Research and Education on the public’s perception of police performance indicated that over 65% of persons interviewed had little or no confidence in the ability of the law enforcement agencies to prevent or solve crimes. However, about 80 percent of persons surveyed indicated their willingness to provide information to the police regarding criminal activities of which they become aware. Similarly, 88 percent agreed that increased citizens’ involvement n law enforcement was a good idea.
Sad to say, public sentiments and attitude towards policing has taken a turn for the worse. Many community residents are resorting to mob justice instead of turning over criminal suspects to the police. There have been many incidents in which alleged armed robbers have been burned to death. In April 2004, an angry mob burnt down a police depot because the police refuse to turn over to them an alleged ritualistic killer who had ran to the depot for protection against the mob. Criminals now prefer to turn themselves into the police or the peace keepers rather than face justice from community residents.
It should be noted however that the role of the police in any human society cannot be over-emphasized. Every society needs a strong and effective police force to maintain law and order, to promote peace and harmony and to secure lives and properties. So the police force is not only central to individual self-actualization, but also to social cohesion, economic development and democratic consolidation. (Wabara 2005).
Policing a deeply divided society where a majority of the citizens are either unemployed or unable to feed properly through honest work is certainly one of the, if not the most difficult jobs in the world. What is worrisome, however, is that the police which are meant to be the antidote to criminality appear to be getting overwhelmed by the phenomenon. The criminals appear to be ahead of the police such that the latter now only react to the commission of crimes and usually after the offenders might have left the scene. What is even more worrisome is that, rather than evoke confidence and hope in the public, the appearance of our policemen often conjures to the public a depressing feeling of fear and mistrust. Other allegations leveled against the police include arbitrariness in the exercise of its powers of arrest and prosecution, corruption and perversion of justice, use of crude techniques of investigation, collusion with criminals and incessant cases of accidental discharge of lethal bullets. The irony of our situation is that the criminal network that perpetrates these heinous is often better funded and better equipped than the law enforcement agencies. One of the problems of law enforcement in this country has been the lack of effective coordination amongst the various agencies of state security and law enforcement. (Olujinmi, 2005).
Onovo (2005) stated that the barriers that reduce the capacity of agencies to share criminal intelligence include the following: Lack of a national process for generating and sharing intelligence, Existence of laws that unduly restrict law enforcement access to information, the hierarchical structures of sharing information, Deficits in criminal intelligence analysis, Lack of good technologies to support criminal intelligence sharing.
He stated further that in Nigeria, security agencies like the Military, the SSS, Customs, Immigration, NDLEA etc. may talk about their routine sharing of criminal intelligence with the police through the Inspector-General of Police or the State Commissioners of Police, and during the monthly Joint Intelligence Board meetings. But the current framework is inadequate. In these days of threat of armed robbery, assassinations and other violent crimes, there is the dire need for a national policy on inter-agency criminal intelligence sharing, a policy that will make it possible and mandatory for the various security agencies to provide unclassified information to the Police Force Headquarters, the Zonal AIGs, the State Command Commissioners, the Area Commanders and the Divisional Police Officers on daily basis. The rationale is that such information will help the police act both proactively to prevent crime as well as reactively to bring criminals to face the law.
On interagency cooperation, Ige (2005) stated that there must be trust, training, and communication.
Private Security Industry In Nigeria And Crime
The private security industry in Nigeria is growing by leaps and bounds and in a way contributes in crime fighting. From its humble beginnings in 1965 when Alhaji Mumuni founded the Nigerian Security and Investigation Company the industry has grown into a multi-billion naira sector with multiple players including multinationals who are operating illegally. PSCs in Nigeria protect public facilities such as the National Stadium Surulere, Murtala Mohammed International Airport Lagos, Osubi Airport in Warri, oil installations, bank facilities and major entertainment or sporting facilities among others.
Nigeria’s PSCs could contribute more to the crime control mission of the police agency. However, the industry is beset by several problems, including the following.
Corruption: With competitive pressures. The level of corruption associated with securing contracts or retaining existing contracts is high. Gaining jobs is often not related to capability and competencies. It is often related to “who you know” or what you have settled”. This phenomenon has led to mushrooming as every former police, prison, or army officer feels he can own and operate a security company. Rather, than applying to well-established firms and attempting to build a career in security they print business cards and letter heads and become security directors. The irony is that being a former police or military officer does not qualify one to become a security director. Training, indoctrination, professional association, mentoring and experience are essential ingredients in corporate security governance. Executives require knowledge, experience, contacts and professional credentials to enable them properly administer their organizations.
Foreign Invasion: The nationalization of private security is a fact of life in the USA and UK. However, Nigerian law forbids the operation in Nigeria of foreign security companies. In defiance of Nigeria law, some foreign security companies e.g. Securicor/Outsourcing Services Ltd have set up shop in Nigeria and are operation illegally. Securicor/OSL first started operation as Gray Security Ltd. It has obtained contracts from the oil, banking, communication and brewing industries. The irony is that government security agents are quick to harass Nigerian security company operators. But these foreigners who are operating illegally and running a money laundering operation in Nigeria which may be used to
subvert the Nigerian state are not being subjected to the applicable law. Their immunity from arrest is based on the fact that some VIPs are involved with them. Internal security of Nigeria must remain in the hands of Nigerians.
Associations and Institutes: The problem or professional associations parallels the mushrooming of security companies. There are two recognized associations, the Security and Safety Association of Nigeria (SSAN) and the Nigerian Professional Security Association (NPSA). A few mushroom associations exist here and there. There are two registered professional security institutes: the Institute of Industrial Security and Safety of Nigeria (IISSN) and the Nigerian Institute of Industrial security (NIIS). Similar to the association a number of mushroom institutes proclaim their existence, laying claims to powers and capabilities they do not possess. The chaotic trade environment has served further to weaken the industry and reduced the probability f its purposeful regulation for national development. The only viable professional security association in Nigeria is the Nigerian branch of the American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS International). This society has two chapters in Nigeria – Nigeria Chapter (206 ) headquartered in Lagos and Port Harcourt Chapter (236) based in Port Harcourt.
ASIS International, founded in 1955, is headquartered in Alexandria, Virginia USA. With over 33,000 members worldwide it is the world’s largest professional security association. ASIS is dedicated to increasing the effectiveness and productivity of security professionals.
Nigeria has about 300 registered members of the professional body. The West and Central Africa Region of ASIS International is based in Nigeria. This region covers 22 West and Central Africa Countries. ASIS draws membership from users and vendors of security. It provides educational programs for its membership, enforces a strict code of professional ethics. It also provides certification opportunities for security professionals awarding the highly coveted Certified Protection Professional (CPP) designation and the newer but less prestigious lower PSP (Physical Security Professional) designation and Professional Certified Investigator (PCI) designation.
Lax Enforcement of Regulations: The Federal Ministry of Internal Affairs, Citizenships and business Department, Private Guards Desk has a limited number of officers coordinating all the PSCs and private guards in the country. With this limited capacity there is little or no enforcement of the regulations guiding PSCs. This creates a chaotic operating environment.
Some guard companies, such as Gray Security/Securicor/OSL wear a uniform similar to the Nigerian Air Force. However, since there is limited enforcement of the regulations, this illegal/money laundering
organization can continue to flout Nigerian law with impurity. Even when transgressions are brought to the attention of the authorities, the limited resources constrain their ability to respond and take punitive or corrective action.
Inter-agency co-operation: There is a low level of public/private security interaction. The police agency does not often exhibit high regard for the professional capabilities and competencies of PSCs. Private security operatives are generally well trained in their work schedule. They can conduct diligent investigations, operations, training and supervision. Street level, division level and command level cooperation between Police and private security can lead to success in achieving the mission of crime control and crime prevention.
What is prevalent is the harassment of private security directors by men of the State Security Service, Nigerian Immigration Service, and the Nigerian Security and Civil defence Corps (NSCDC) also know is security circles as “guguru defence” which is itself a government owned security outfit managed within the Federal Ministry of Internal Affairs (FMIA).
Poor Public Perception: PSCs are caught in a vortex of low pay from clients, low morale on the part of operators and operatives, dissatisfaction on the part of clients, sloven appearance and department and consequently low public perception. Even though there has been an
improvement in the turnout and demeanour of private guards within the past 20 years in Nigeria, there is still a general negative perception of private guards. Because of the low public perception, Private guards are often the sacrificial lams once a security incident occurs. (Ekhomu, 2005).
Dimensions Of Crime In Nigeria
Some of the emerging and special categories of crimes in Nigeria are corruption, Money Laundering, Cyber Crime, Terrorism, Human Trafficking, Assassination, Kidnapping etc.
Corruption
Corruption is very widespread in Nigeria and it manifests itself in virtually all aspects of national life. Nigeria was sometime ago rated by the Transparency International Index as the most corrupt country in the world. Corruption is a worldwide phenomenon, which has been with societies throughout history. It has caused political and economic instability in societies and, depending on the scale, it has led to social conflict and violence, as competing groups vie for state power which is the source of distribution of resources and other amenities in society. (Ibrahim 2001, Adenuga 2001).
Otite (1986) described corruption as “the perversion of integrity or state of affairs through bribery, favour, or moral depravity. He stated that corruption takes place when at least two parties have interacted to change the structure or processes of society or the behaviour of functionaries in order to produce dishonest, unfaithful or defiled situations.
The United Nations is of the view that corruption in government increases poverty in many ways. Most directly, it diverts resources to the rich people, who can afford to pay bribes and away from the poor, who cannot. Corruption also weakens a Government and lessens its ability to fight poverty. It reduces tax revenues and, thus, the resources available for public services (Mills, 2001). The immediate impact on the poor people is that there will be higher prices and fewer employment opportunities, because of the distortions that corruption has caused. Corrupt officials will be willing to demand payment for public services, which are supposed to be free.
Corruption makes it possible for senior public officials to acquire massive personal wealth from states. This has negative impact to development.
Money Laundering and Online Banking
Many financial institutions are now providing banking service through the Internet. Most of these are established financial institutions that offer only part of their services online. The concern with respect to money laundering, is that there is no face-to-face contact between the customer and financial institution. The customer accesses his or her account on the website of the financial institution by providing a password. Since no face-to-face contact is required, the financial institution has no means of verifying the identify of the individual. Moreover, a customer can access her account from anywhere in the world. In addition, as access is gained through an internet service provider, the institution has no way of verifying the location from which the account was accessed. An individual desiring to conceal his or her identity, including money launderers, would be able to have unrestricted online access to and control of his or her bank accounts in any location (Redpath, 2001). The EFCC (Economic and Financial Crimes Commission) in Nigeria has been able to tackle a few cases where online banking has been used for money laundering.
Cyber crime
Online computers via the internet can be used to plan and co-ordinate activities, and to facilitate illegal acts, as well as to distribute tools for committing crimes. Instructions for building bombs and deadly weapons and instructions for building “red boxes” used in stealing telephone services, have all been found on the internet. Software for hacking into other computer systems is also available online. Pirated software, child pornography, scams and offshore tax evasion schemes are all available or operated via the internet (Redpath, 2001).
Internet crimes are raising international concern. Every terrorist organization has its own internet website “to propagate it, recruit manpower, purchase firearms and even sell children for sexual purposes”. Cyber crimes are serious sophisticated crimes like swindling, embezzlement and money laundering. These crimes are being committed all the time and often traces are covered up or erased instantly, making the police unable to track them (Radpath, 2001).
According to Abdullahi (2004: 5) Cyber Crimes can be categorized into five: Data bidding is the most common, easiest and fastest method. It involves changing the data that will be put into the computer or that are already in the computer. The Trojan Horse technique involves instructing the computer to perform unauthorized functions as well as its intended function. The Salami Method. This refers to taking small amounts of money from a larger source without significantly reducing the whole. For example, one might in a bank account situation, instruct the computer to reduce some accounts by certain percentage (usually small) and place such amount in another account. Super zapping: To take care of potential problem of malfunction there is the need for what is sometimes called break glass in case of emergency computer programme. This programme
will bypass all controls to modify or disclose any of the contents of a computer. This is powerful for committing crime in the hands of dubious people. Data Leakage refers to removing information from the computer system or computer facility.
Human Trafficking
Human trafficking, according to Article 3a of the United Nations Protocol is defined as the “recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person for the purpose of exploitation. The trafficking in persons (Prohibition) Law Enforcement and Administration Act (2003), defines trafficking as all acts and attempted acts involved in the recruitment, transportation within or across Nigerian borders, purchases, sales, transfer, receipt or harbouring of a person involving the use of deception, coercion or debt bondage for the purpose of placing or holding the person, whether for or not involuntary servitude (domestic, sexual or reproductive) in forced or bonded labour, or in slavery-like conditions”.
Victims of human trafficking include the poor, weak powerless, ignorant, desperate and vulnerable adults mostly women, youth and children. Human trafficking can be either internal or external. Human trafficking is internal when it takes place within a country, while it is external when it takes place across international boundaries. It was discovered that human trafficking started in Nigeria from the second half of the 1980’s when people engaged in it to escape the hardship by the Structural adjustment Programme (SAP) (NAPTIP Newsletter, 2006).
Human trafficking is a modern slavery. Those who engaged in trafficking of persons are often friends, relatives, neighbours and familiar people to victims. Human trafficking is an organized crime. It has a chain of syndicate. In this organized crime, we have the Sponsors, financers and facilitators; There are madams or bosses, supervisors, accomplices or collaborators, aiders and a betters; Victims or persons who are trafficked and exploited
Some of the causes on the part of the victims and traffickers are poverty, ignorance, greed, get-rich syndrome, illiteracy, identity or moral bankruptcy, high demand for cheap and submissive child labourers, false impression of preparation for marriage, unemployment, child fostering, inequalities in the society, disregard for education, conflicts, those orphaned by the HIV/AIDS pandemic, large family size etc. It is apparent that trafficking in persons has, over the years, changed its form, colour and style. It has always been abhorred and denigrated by well-meaning members of the society as uncivilized, brutal and primitive. Government has demonstrated its political will by enacting the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Law, 2003 to deal with the problem. It is expected that the civil society, the judiciary, faith-based groups and even the victim, should join hands in ensuring that the law works and offenders are put out of circulation for a better society (Ndaguba, 2005).
Assassination
As the world advances and the stakes in political clashes or will continue to grow on a global scale, the number of assassinations concomitantly multiplies. Assassination is the deliberate killing of an important person, usually a political figure or other strategically important individuals. An assassin is the person who carries out an assassination (Wikipedia, 2006). Assassins have a wide range of reasons for their action. Reasons for attacks include: to achieve notoriety or fame, to avenge a perceived wrong, to end personal pains; to be killed by law enforcement agent, to bring national attention to a perceived problem, to save the country or the world, to achieve a special relationship with the target, to make money, to bring about political change and to settle scores.
It has been found that no assassins or attackers communicated a direct threat about their target to him or to a law enforcement agency before their attack. Many writers on assassinations asserted that most assassins have been mentally ill. Some say that mental illness is the cause
of assassination. Others argued that mental illness is a key factor in understanding assassination behaviour. This argument can be seen in four ways: Assassination is inherently an irrational act. Those who assert that assassins have been mentally ill are implying of a few assassins. Many who consider assassins and attackers to be mentally ill look at the nature of the act itself. Reasonable people abhor the thought of assassination. It is hard to accept the idea that a few persons might see assassinations as acceptable way to resolve their problems and to achieve their goals. With rare exception, trails of assassins and attackers of leaders and celebrities in the past 30 years have featured testimony by mental health professionals to the effect that the defendant was suffering from mental illness at the time of this or her attack and should not be held criminally responsible.
Many scholars such as Freedman (1966), Goode (2002) and Madunagu (2006), are of the opinion that political assassinations are failure of the political system. Inability to penetrate the ruling class frequently results in political assassinations of public figures connected with politics. Failure in politics carries high costs often in relation to loss of human lives. Political assassination occurs when people want to settle scores. This may come in two ways: It is either there is a design, which is calculated to undermine the authority of the government of the day, or Government is using its authority to stifle opposition. In this context, lives are lost, properties are destroyed and people are displaced. Thus, displaced people eventually become refugees in their own country.
Assassination is the end result of a process of thinking and behaviour. Many attackers move through life on a path that leads them to consider assassination of one or another prominent person as an acceptable or even necessary way to improve their situations or resolve their problems. These persons are often relatively bright and well educated. They may appear to be socially isolated, but they often look, dress, and act in ways that do not readily distinguish them from others. At some point, attackers begin to see the idea of assassination as acceptable and desirable. They may gather information about previous assassins, take special interest in one or more potential public officials or figure targets, and becoming famous and notorious. Persons who continue along the path to attack often carefully consider how to carry out an attack. They may visit an office, home or temporary visiting place of their target. Their travels may take them far from home. They may try to learn about security arrangements and see the presence or absence of security as a deterrent or as an opportunity.
Crime Rate In The Country
Nigeria has witnessed high rates of crime and victimization that have defied the measures, introduced by successive regimes, for its management during the past two decades.
According to Osalor (2009): “The scariest undertone of Nigeria’s socio-economic underachievement, by far, is the steady rise in youth crime, nurtured in a climate of increasing national income and the simultaneous failure of employment-generation and poverty alleviation programmes. Armed insurgencies ravaging the oil-rich and volatile Niger Delta region are now competing for space in international headlines with a proliferation of Islamic terrorist offshoots. The season of discontent has especial ramifications for a nation with unemployed millions, and the net effect has been a tragic precipitation of violent crimes: assault, burglary, extortion and kidnapping. Further, decades of social and political turmoil helped turn this strategically located African nation into an established junction for international drug smugglers. Other highlights of Nigeria’s prolific crime syndicates are economic fraud – usually in the form of innovative Internet schemes; money laundering and racketeering”. He stated further that Human development indices for Africa’s second largest economy continue to be appalling despite the country’s bountiful resources, escalating oil fortunes and a vigorous reforms programme initiated after the return of democracy in 1999. He stated further that a
2007 UNDP survey on poverty and extreme deprivation of 108 countries ranked Nigeria at the 80th position, giving it a Human Poverty Index of 37.3 – among the lowest for the entire continent Per capital GDP stands at a meager $1,400 with 54$ of the population living on less than $1 per day, 50 million people, most of them women and children, suffer from nutritional deficiencies. 10% of Nigerians are malnourished and half the population does not have access to safe drinking water. 25% of children below the age of 5 are underweight and 42% display stunted growth. Over 3% of adults in the age group 15 – 49 are infected with HIV/AIDS.
In 1980, the poverty level in Nigerian households with a female head was 27%. The figure rose to 58% by 2015. For a country that earns an estimated $2.2 Million in daily petrodollar revenue, these figures reflect an impudent malaise that has invaded every aspect of Nigerian life.
There are several reasons adduced for increase in crime rate in the country. Akparanta (1994) attempted to provide reasons for urban violence/crime in post civil war Nigeria, arguing that following the war, there was an abundance of guns in private hands and times were hard economically. Accompanied by deterioration in the standard of education, and the lack of specific training in areas relevant for sustaining both the agricultural and the industrial sector, many youths went astray. Another argument was that the continuously unpredictable political atmosphere and lack of progressive management of the economy brought about galloping inflation, ad concentration of wealth in the hands of the few who were in positions of public authority fuelled a sense of hopeless desperation among the masses.
Crime And Development
Odekunle (2005) tried to summarize the import in the following ways: Criminal victimization has serious consequences for the citizens and society. Individual and societal aspirations for democracy, development, human rights, high standard of living are undermined by high level of criminal victimization. Nigeria has witnessed high rates of crime and victimization that have defied the measures, introduced by successive regimes, for its management during the past two decades.
The cost and consequences of the crime problem for the population and consequences are manifold: in addition to the material loss and/or personal distress caused by actual criminal victimization, there is the debilitating reality of the population’s unquantifiable but costly expenditure of energy and scarce resources on anxious fear of, and precautionary care against potential criminal victimization – fear and care that must arise out of feelings of insecurity and helplessness and out of a situation they must have assessed as probably hopeless. This cost of precaution is one major indication of the population’s perception of the reality of the situation: it should suffice to consider the amount of money and energy expended now-a-days, particularly in urban and semi-urban areas, on the security of a house or a car (!!!), not to mention the inconveniences and curtailment of freedom of movement suffered. For the government itself, there is the cost in terms of credibility. Government’s enjoyment of public confidence depends (in part, at least) on some apparent effectiveness in preventing/controlling criminal victimization of its population and thereby increasing that population’s feeling of security with regard to their individual persons and property, the provision of security is one of the main functions of the state. A state that cannot protect the lives and properties of its nationals is not entitled to their loyalty, it is well on the way to becoming a failed state.