REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Framework and
Empirical Review of Related Literature
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept of Youth
It is difficult to clearly establish what the meaning of the term "youth" is since different states, organisations, and academics have varying descriptions and definitions of who the young is. However, there is widespread agreement among academics that today's youths will be tomorrow's leaders, and the conviction that this is the case is what drives nations of the globe to devote significant resources to youth development programmes (Gonyok, 2016). For instance, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in 2016, asserted that the term "youth" is best understood as a period of transition from the dependence of childhood to the adulthood's independence and awareness of our interdependence as members of a community. This was stated in a report that was published in 2016. The United Nations Organization (UNO), in order to maintain statistical consistency across regions, defines "youth" as individuals who are between the ages of 15 and 24 years old; however, this view does not preclude other definitions provided by member states. This view is in line with the notion that youth are transitioning from a period of dependence to one of independence. Also, according to the National Population Commission, a youth or young adult is a person who is between the ages of 18 and 24 years old (NBS, 2016). According to the National Population Commission, the characteristics that define youth are as follows: these are people who normally would have completed secondary education, and they would either be enrolled in tertiary institutions such as the university, attempting to secure employment, or would already be employed. This population would be in need of information and services pertaining to higher education, employment, and sexual and reproductive health. In contrast to the ideas presented above, the publication African Pulse (2017) considers a young person to be any anyone who is between the ages of 15 and 35 years old. In the same vein, the Federal Republic of Nigeria's second National Youth Policy Document, which was published in 2009, defines "youths" as those who are between the ages of 18 and 35 years old. Still utilising the progression from dependency to independence as an example, Akoda (2010) was quoted in Gonyok (2016). As part of the definition of youth, Schema identified certain distinguishing characteristics that youths have, including the following:
(i). Leaving the parental home and establishing a new living arrangement;
(ii) Completing full-time education;
(iii) Forming close, stable personal relationships outside of the family, often resulting in marriage and children; and
(iv) Testing the labour market, finding work and possibly settling into a career, and achieving a more or less sustainable livelihood.
The conclusion that can be drawn from this is that the stage of life known as adolescence is the time when an individual is most active in life, in terms of pursuing things like education, practical skills, and work, and so on. In point of fact, at this age, youth have a great deal of energy and are looking for places where they may channel that energy productively. In addition, during this time period, the vast majority of youth feel anxious since they do not know what the future holds for them (African Pulse 2017). As a result, a variety of questions like "what does the future hold for me? ", "what are the roles/positions I can fit into in the society? ", and "can I accomplish my dreams?" run through their heads constantly. And what institutional safeguards are in place to ensure that these hopes and ambitions become a reality? When the responses to these inquiries are not upbeat or clear, it's possible for the youth to grow frustrated. As Djamen. (2019) has observed, disenfranchised youth are among the most desirable candidates for recruitment by violent extremists and criminal gangs. They provided a summary of the characteristics of youth that motivate them to take action. These characteristics include the youths' openness to novel ideas, optimism regarding the future, boundless spirit, eagerness to learn, dynamism, and youthfulness. In addition, the youths' search for avenues to direct their energetic ways to be productive was also mentioned. "the age limit for youth has been growing as individuals continue to seek higher education, with the presence of increased levels of unemployment, and the expense of setting up an independent family throws many youth into a protracted and time of reliance," according to a general statement (Gonyok, 2016). When looking at those in the age range of 15 to 35, a significant portion of Nigeria's population falls into this category.
Youth in Nigeria is defined as persons who are between the ages of 15 and 34, and the National Population Commission (NBS, 2016) estimates that around half of the country's population is comprised of youth. In a similar vein, Odey (2015) claimed that, according to the figures from the 2006 Census, the percentage of youth in Nigeria was around 36.9 percent. Any nation would be fortunate to have a substantial young population that is also of high quality since this suggests the availability of future generations to whom the leadership of the nation may be passed down. On the other hand, in order for teenagers to be able to perform their societal duties and places effectively, they need to be appropriately empowered and developed. A country's substantial young population may be put to both positive and negative use. In the words of the World Bank (2020), "social change is not designed by young, but it is most evident in youths." It is possible for there to be a cumulative process of innovation and social and cultural growth when there is a large contingent of youth in a population; it is also possible for there to be behaviour that is elemental and directionless; it is also possible for it to lead to the destruction of old institutions and the elevation of new elites to power; and it is also possible for totalitarianism to organise and direct the unemployed energies of youth.
It is a well-known fact that many youth, despite their ability to be productive and have a lot of energy, are unable to find jobs, continue to have bad health, and do not receive enough assistance. It is confusing to claim that no nation would experience progress while the majority of the people, which comprises the biggest proportion of the population, are idle and ineffectual. This is because the preponderance of the population makes up the largest percentage of the population. Consequently, this means that youth have a more significant part to play in the process of national development. Without a shadow of a doubt, a nation's youth is both its pillar of strength and its hope for the future. The youth of any nation are an extremely important factor in terms of both the present and the future growth of that nation. This is the reason why the majority of countries have definite development programmes for their youths (World Bank 2020).
The number of youthful people in a country is a reliable indicator of how successfully it is able to reproduce and maintain its own population. There is a favourable correlation between the amount of their vitality, responsible behaviour, and positions in society and the growth of their country.
There are certain unique characteristics of the Youth which include:
They are the future of any nation and serve as the bridge that link the present to future generations.
They constitute the most active and productive part of any nation.
They constitute the largest part of the population of most nations especially the developing nations.
They are relatively inexperienced and impatient but their spontaneity, adventure and daring disposition can be put to productive use.
They are very dynamic and can serve as agents of social change especially is societies experiencing moral degeneration (World Bank 2020).
Youths in Nigeria
According to Oyebade (2015), the individuals who are considered to fall under the age bracket of Youth are classified in a variety of different ways by various institutions and nations. The term "youth" refers to those who are between the ages of 15 and 24 according to the United Nations. According to the NYSC, applicants must be between the ages of 18 and 30. However, according to the youth policy, youth are considered to be anyone between the ages of 18 and 35 years old. It identified the problems confronting the youth in Nigeria to include:
a). Inadequate parental care
b). Non-availability of suitable sports and recreational facilities
c). Moral decadence in the society
d). Lack of appropriate role models
e). Religious fanaticism
f). Cult activities
g). Political manipulation of youth organizations
h). Unemployment and underemployment
i). Poor education
j). Breakdown of family values; and
k). Indiscipline (Oyebade, 2015).
Unfortunately, for the past three decades, youth development has been ignored, which has led to a rise in the number of disruptive behaviours and criminal acts committed by youth. Irresponsible politicians and religious bigots are using youth as a reserve army of the jobless to perpetuate violence and thuggery in society. The youth have become this reserve army. Many of the younger population no longer have faith in the wisdom of their elders or in the authority of the established institutions. The youth of Nigeria need to undergo a transformation in order for the country to make development; they need to develop their own leadership and entrepreneurial abilities, and they need to become agents of social action and change (Osuji Anthony, Ekhamheye Sylvester, & Tony-Okolo Chilezie 2021).
The National Youths Policy acknowledges that the country's youth represent an important resource that has the potential to be utilised for the benefit of the whole nation. In light of this, the policy seeks to address issues that are relevant to youths by including comprehensive solutions that would offer the youth significant opportunity to reach their potential. The policy establishes a comprehensive framework within which all stakeholders, including members of the commercial sector and members of the civil society, would contribute to the advancement of youths (Okafor 2015).
If Nigeria invests in human development today, it may be able to enjoy the advantages of what some people have referred to as a "demographic dividend" by the year 2030. The existing demographic structures of Nigeria might become advantageous in the future when a demographic window of opportunity opens up as a result of the country's declining birth rate and high youth reliance. A diverse group of people who have a stake in the situation are the ones who are accountable for seeing to it that youth's goals and expectations are fulfilled. Every member of the community, regardless of age, is responsible for performing the duties assigned to them. As a result, the mentality and roles that they play are of utmost significance to the growth of any community. In point of fact, the youths of Nigeria, and not oil, will be the driving force behind Nigeria's success in the 21st century (Onuba 2019).
Concept of Cybercrime?
Cybercrime is a topical issue that has been discussed by many people from various perspectives (Ibikunle and Eweniyi, 2013). One reason for this is the huge losses that were attributed to it. It was estimated that, global losses to cybercrime is about
$400bn annually (CSIS, 2014). Others have put it at a higher value of $445bn4. As technology evolved, so did the definitions of cybercrime. According to Halder and Jaishankar (2011), cybercrime is an offence, with a criminal motive, committed against an individual or group of persons intentionally to harm the reputation of the victims as well as cause irreparable damage to hardware of sensitive infrastructure, including internet and mobile phones. Symantec Corporation, the world’s biggest computer security company, defined cybercrime as any crime committed using a computer, network or hardware devices (Theohary and Finklea, 2015).
To explain what cybercrime means, let us look at the slit meaning of the words ‘cyber’ and ‘crime’. The word ‘cyber’ has its origins from ‘cybernetics’, which refers to the science of communication that deals with the study of automatic control systems (much like the human nervous system/ workings of the brain) as well as the mechanical-electrical communication systems. Cyber is therefore a derivative of cybernetics used to describe interactions that relate to, or involve computers or networks. ‘Crime’ refers to the specific actions or inactions due to negligence that is injurious to public welfare or morals, and one that is legally prohibited. Cybercrime (e- crime or hi-tech crime) is a global phenomenon which takes place in the cyberspace i.e. in the world of computers and on the internet. Cybercrime involves using specialized applications in computers with the internet by technically skilled individuals to commit crime. The aftermath of such crimes may threaten a nation’s security architecture and financial health (Saul, 2007). So, cybercrime can simply be explained as a crime carried out with the aid of a computer system. It refers to criminal acts that are facilitated through the use of the internet.
Basic Concept of Cybercrimes
Cybercrime is an emerging trend that is gradually growing as the internet continues to penetrate every sector of our society and the future is yet unknown. Cybercrime may be divided into two categories (Carter, 1997):
Crimes that affects computer networks and devices directly. Examples are malicious code, computing viruses, malware etc.
Crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the computer networks or device. Examples include Advance fee fraud such as Yahoo, Money theft through the ATM, SMS requesting you to provide bank details as BVN.
Types and Dimension of Cybercrimes
In the past, little was known about cybercrime, but as the internet grew worldwide, the unintended consequences of computerization manifested in global notoriety. It is a worldwide problem that costs countries, businesses and individuals billions of dollars. The first reported cybercrime was committed by employees of a company in the 1960s and involved the company’s mainframe computer (Maitanmi et al., 2013). In recent times however, it not only involves employees of companies or nations, but includes organized criminal gangs, terrorists, rogue governments and individuals (in isolated cases).
Lewis (2002), identified four important elements when assessing the risks of cyber crime. First, infrastructure as a target: cyber warfare and terrorism were placed in the historical context of attacks against infrastructure. Second, routine failure versus cyber attack: examining cyber attacks against a backdrop of routine infrastructure failures. Third, weapons of mass annoyance: the measurement of the dependence of infrastructure on computer networks and the redundancy already present in these systems. Finally, hacking and terror: for the case of cyber-terrorism, the use of cyber weapons in the context of the political goals and motivations of terrorists, and whether cyber-weapons are likely to achieve success.
According to Broadhurst (2006), computer crime encompasses criminal activities which can aptly be categorized by its unique typology of computer-related crime, comprising conventional crimes in which computers are instrumental to the offence. This is the case of child’s pornography and intellectual property theft; attacks on computer networks; and conventional criminal cases in which abound undeniable evidence in digital form. The kinds of criminality include the following and is not limited by the underlisted issues:
i.Interference with lawful use of a computer: cyber vandalism and terrorism; denial of service; insertion of viruses, worms, ransomware and other malicious code.
ii.Dissemination of offensive materials: pornography/child pornography; on-line gaming/betting; racist content; treasonous or sacrilegious content.
iii.Threatening communications: extortion; cyber-stalking.
iv.Forgery/counterfeiting: ID theft; IP offences; software, CD, DVD piracy; copyright breaches et cetera.
v.Fraud: payment card fraud and e-funds transfer fraud; theft of Internet and telephone services; auction house and catalogue fraud; consumer fraud and direct sales (e.g. virtual ‘snake oils’); on-line securities fraud.
vi.Others include illegal interception of communications; commercial/corporate espionage; communications in furtherance of criminal conspiracies; electronic money laundering.
Hassan et al. (2012), categorized cybercrimes into cyber terrorism, Cyber fraud, malware, cyber stalking, spam, wiretapping, logic bombs and password sniffing. Wada and Odulaja (2012), included phishing and fake copy-cat websites to the types of existing cybercrimes. These are distinguished below.
(i)Cyber Terrorism - Lewis (2002), defines cyber-terrorism as the malicious act of using computer network to disrupt the normal processes of critical national infrastructures (such as energy, transportation, government operations), including the coercion or intimidation of public and private citizens. Hassan et al, (2012), described cyber extortion as a sort of cyber terrorism whereby the website, e-mail server, i or computer system leveraging on ransomware is put under attack by hackers for denial of services and demand for ransom.
(ii)Fraud (Identity Theft) - Fraud refers to the act of depriving a person dishonestly of something, which such an individual are supposedly entitled to possess. It verbally means an act of deception deliberately carried out to gain unlawful advantage. For fraud to be ascertained, there must be established, a case of dishonest intention to benefit (on the part of the perpetrator) at the detriment of other individual or organization (Eseoghene, 2010). The concept of Identity Theft is simple; someone gains access to someone’s personal information and uses it for his/her own benefit.
(iii)Malware – “Malware”, also known as malicious software, refers to the use of software or code designed to by-pass some security checks in computers/mobile devices and harness data without consent (MacAfee, Apr 23, 2013). Malicious logics include developmental faults such as Trojan horses, logic or timing bombs, trapdoors and zombies. It also includes operational faults such as viruses or worms (Avizienis et al, 2004). Powell and Stroud (2003) describes these faults as follows:
i.Trojan horse performs illegal action with the impression of being legitimate. This may involve the disclosure or modification of information which is essentially an attack against integrity and confidentiality.
ii.Logic bomb remains dormant in the host system until a certain time or an event occurs, or certain conditions are met, before it begins to delete files, slow down or crash the host system.
iii.Virus replicates itself and joins another programme when it is executed, thereby turning into a Trojan horse (a virus can carry a logic bomb). Worm replicates itself and propagates without the users being aware of it (a worm can also carry a logic bomb).
iv.Trapdoor provides a means of circumventing access control mechanisms.
v.Zombie can be triggered by an attacker in order to mount a coordinated attack.
(iv)Cyber Stalking – According to Ellison and Akdeniz (1998), cyber stalking refers to the use of the internet, e-mail, or other electronic devices to stalk another person. Cyber stalking can be used interchangeably with online abuse or online harassment. The perpetrator does not present a direct physical threat to a victim, but follows the victim’s online activity, gathers information and eventually makes threats towards the victim.
(v)Spam – This refers to unsolicited bulk electronic mail (e-mail) and short message services (SMS) sent indiscriminately to prospective victims of crime via electronic messaging systems. It is possibly the most practical cyber attack weapon because of its low operating cost (which ends with the maintenance of mailing lists) and the difficulty that would be associated with holding anyone accountable for mass mailings. The perpetrators, known as spammers, rely on users not reading the fine print of agreements, resulting in them agreeing to send messages indiscriminately to their contacts.
(vi)Wiretapping/Illegal Interception of Telecommunication –
Telephone fraud has always been a problem. However, with an increase in the use of cellular phones as well as the ability to purchase goods and services with credit cards over phones, the problem has increased dramatically in recent years. Criminals use wiretapping methods to eavesdrop on communications and gain access to information which they should not be privy to.
(vii)Password Sniffing - Password sniffers are programmes which are designed to collect the first 128 or more bytes of network connections within a defined network being monitored (Hassan, et al, 2012). Crackers have them installed on networks used by systems that they intend to hack or penetrate. The sniffer collects information when users type in information such as usernames and passwords, usually required when using common internet services. Other programs sort through collected information, pull out important pieces such as the usernames and passwords, and cover up their existence in an automated way.
(viii)Phishing - High-tech identity theft that steals personal information and identity of unsuspecting users as well as commits acts of fraud against the legitimate individual or organization that have been victimized. The perpetrators send false emails fraudulently designed to mimic legitimate businesses, requesting for personal information which if released can allow them access one’s bank accounts, including details of debit and credit cards.
(ix)Fake Web-Sites - There is the emergence of fake ‘copy-cat’ websites that take advantage of customers who are unfamiliar with internet usage or unsure of the real web site address of a legitimate company. Customers unwittingly enter their personal details into the fake web sites of criminals who either use the details themselves to commit crime or sell on the details to other interested fraudsters.
Causes and Effects of CyberCrime in Nigeria
Causes of CyberCrime
The root causes of cybercrimes are not far-fetched. One only has to take a quick glance around the society to observe illicit wealth acquisition and its display. This is coupled with the fact that, the perpetrators are highly exalted. The problem is made worse by the high youth unemployment, the absence of enforceable prohibitive laws and the general laissez faire attitude of individuals and businesses regarding cyber security (Hassan et al., 2012). Evidence has also shown that, a significant proportion of these crimes are perpetuated by people in their youthful age. It is however worth noting that some of these attacks are also perpetrated within organizations. Many internet users are easily lured by unknown mails and web site addresses, falling victim to spyware and phishing.
Hassan et al. (2012) identified urbanization, high unemployment, quest for wealth, poor implementation of cybercrime laws, inadequately equipped law enforcement agencies, and negative role models as some of the causes of proliferated cybercrimes in Nigeria. Akwara et al., (2013), in their study examined the relationships among unemployment, poverty and insecurity in Nigeria.
They found that unemployment causes poverty, and that a positive causal relationship exists between the latter and insecurity. Other causes of cybercrime according to them are: corruption, gullibility/greed, proliferation of cyber cafes and the vulnerable nature of the internet. The main causes of cyber-crimes in Nigeria are briefly discussed below.
(i)Urbanization – Rapid urbanization in Nigeria which manifests mainly through the fast population growth is a challenging issue for policy makers. Urban population grows at an annual rate of 4.3% (WDI, 2016). This is much higher than the Sub- Saharan Africa average and continues to put pressure on available resources in Nigerian cities. For instance, only 32.8% of urban population had access to improved sanitation facilities in 2015, and about 68.5% of urban population had access to potable water supply within the period (WDI, 2016). According to Meke (2012), urbanization is beneficial only to the extent of availability of good jobs that have been created in cities, amidst high population growth rate. The study held that urbanization is one of the major reason that led to increases in cybercrimes in Nigeria. He also noted that urbanization and crime move in tandem.
(ii)Unemployment – Unemployment rate in Nigeria is high and stood at 23.1% in the fourth quarter of 2018. Youth unemployment rate is currently above 47%. According to Okafor (2011), high unemployment in Nigeria comes with socio- economic, political and psychological consequences. This phenomenon encourages the development of street youths and urban urchins (“area boys”) that grow up in a culture that encourages criminal behavior.
(iii)Quest for wealth - Carnal instinct that quests for wealth is another cause of cyber crimes in Nigeria. For any business to succeed, it is expected that, the rate of returns on the investment grow at a geometric rate, with minimal risk. Cyber criminals desire to invest minimal capital in a conducive environment that would reap maximum gains as they strive to become rich using the quickest means possible.
(iv)Poor Implementation of Cybercrime Laws and Inadequately Equipped Law Enforcement Agencies – According to Laura (2011), African countries have received intense criticism for inadequately handling of cybercrimes due to inadequate infrastructure and competence of assigned law enforcement agencies. The private sector also lags behind in protecting itself from cyber savvy criminals, Nigeria inclusive. There is no sophisticated hardware to forensically track down cyber criminals. In some instances, the laws regarding cybercrimes are circumvented by criminals. It is worth noting that law enforcement agencies in Nigeria such as the EFCC and ICPC have successfully prosecuted cybercrime offenders over the years. Nevertheless, much improvement can still be made.
(v)Negative Role Models - Youths are mirrors of the society. According to Meke (2012), many parents transmit criminal tendencies to their children via socialization. If this continues unchecked and the values are absorbed by the younger generation, they will see nothing wrong with cybercrime.
(vi)Corruption – Nigeria has continued to occupy despicable position in the global ranking for corruption. In 2018, Nigeria was ranked the 144th most corrupt nation in the world out of 176 countries surveyed by the Transparency International5. People celebrate wealth without questioning the source of such wealth. It is common to hear of people with questionable character and wealth being celebrated in society. This misguided disposition towards wealth encourages the get-rich-quick mind set that can be pursued through cybercrime.
(vii)Gullibility/Greed – Most victims of cybercrime express some degree of gullibility and/or greed. Some people carry out transactions hoping to make profits without thorough investigations. Such people are preys for the cyber criminals.
(viii)Poverty - According to Jolaosho (1996), poverty refers to the inability to afford decent food, shelter, clothing and recreational activities. Hence, poverty is the absence of basic life essentials for survival and comfort of mankind. A poverty-stricken person may unwittingly turn to crime for survival. About 50% of Nigerians live in extreme poverty as at 2018.
(ix)The Proliferation of Cyber Cafes and the Porous Nature of the Internet - It is important to note that the nature of the internet is that geographical and political boundaries are not relevant as attacks can be generated by criminals from anywhere in the world and executed wherever the criminals deem fit. Also, the proliferation of cyber cafes has been another major cause of the rising cyber crime.
Various Cybercrimes in Nigeria
For Several decades, the internets have experienced an increase growth with the number of hosts connected to the internet increasing daily at a higher rate. As the internet grows to become more accessible and more facilities become reliant on it for their daily operation, likewise the rise in cybercrime. In Nigeria, cybercrime has become one of the main avenues for stealing of money and business spying. According to Check Point, a global network cyber security vendor, as of 2016, Nigeria is ranked 16th highest country in cyber-attacks vulnerabilities in Africa (Castells 2002) in (Yar 2006). Nigerians are known both home and abroad to be rampant perpetuators of cybercrimes. The number of Nigerians caught for duplicitous activities carried by broadcasting stations is much more in comparison to other citizens of different countries. Recently the United States of America (US) apprehended 6 Nigerians (18/06/2020) in the US for cyber related crime as published by the Nigerian new publishers. The contribution of the internet to the development of Nigeria has had a positive impact on various sectors of the country. However, these sectors such as the banking, e-commerce and education sector battles with the effect of cybercrimes. More cybercrimes are arising at an alarming rate with each subsequent crime more advanced than its previous ones.
Banking Sector and Cybercrimes
The life wire of the banking sector is the internet. Presently, banks all over the world are taking advantage and incorporating opportunities brought about by Electronic banking (e-banking) which is believed to have started in the early 1980’s. As the security level in this sector becomes stronger, the strength and tactics of these fraudsters increases also. Various threat attacks have been explored in which, many of them are successful. Generally, cybercriminals carry out fraudulent activities with the ultimate goal of accessing a user’s bank account to either steal/transfer funds to another bank account without rightful authorization. However, in some rare cases in Nigeria, the intention of cyber-criminals is to cause damage to the reputation of the bank by denying service to users [6] and sabotaging data in computer networks of organizations.
Bank Verification Number (BVN) Scams:
The BVN is a biometric identification system which consists of an 11-digit number that acts as a universal ID across all the banks in Nigeria. BVN was implemented in 2015 by the Central Bank of Nigeria. It was introduced to link various accounts to the owner thereby ensuring that fraudulent activities are minimized. For fraudsters, opportunities to extort money and to carry out other fraudulent activities arose from the implementation of the BVN. It was detected that fake and unauthorized text messages and phone calls were sent to various users demanding for personal information such as their account details. In addition, phishing sites were created to acquire such information for unhealthy activities on the bank account of individuals.
Phishing
Phishing is a theft of identity. It involves stealing personal information from unsuspecting users and it is also an act of fraud against the authentic, authorized businesses and financial institutions that are victimized. In Phishing mail messages, the fraudsters’ tries to find a way to convince and gain the trust of users. Phishing mails are mostly carried out on bank customers either through mail, text Messages or phone call requesting individual bank information for the purpose of criminal activity. In some cases social media platforms like what-Sapp, Facebook, etc are used to initiate communication just to establish trust and confidence, there by exploiting individuals for the said motive subsequently.
Cyber-theft / Banking Fraud
Hackers target the vulnerability-ties in the security of various bank systems and transfer money from uncountable accounts to theirs. Most cyber-criminals transfer little amounts like 5 naira which are sometimes overlooked by the user without questions raised by the users who assumes this was deducted for either SMS or ATM withdrawal charges. Doing this for over a million accounts enriches most fraudsters usually treated as legitimates deductions unknown.
Sales Fraud & Forgery
In our society today, fraudulent sales of products that do not exist or that are imitations are increasingly common. The purchase of an item before actually seeing it has created ways for fraudsters to make money via the sale of fake products or in some cases, the total absence of the product. Many persons have fallen victim of this particular crime on popular E- commerce websites, where the hackers’ makes used of a cloned websites to perpetrates there crimes.
Education Sector and Cybercrime
The educational sector in Nigeria suffers greatly from electronic crimes which are perpetuated mostly by students in tertiary institutions (Universities, Polytechnic and monotechnic and others).
Cyber-Plagiarism
Information housed on the internet has made an effective alteration on the methods in which people educate themselves. The term ‘Copy and Paste’ is the most common phrase used when referring to cyber- plagiarism. Cyber-plagiarism can be defined as copying and pasting online sources into word processing documents without reference to the original writer /owner. In the educational sector in Nigeria, students, particularly those in the tertiary institutions carry out this crime without enforcing the due penalty.
Pornography
Cyber-pornography is the act of using cyberspace to create, display, distribute, import, or publish pornography or obscene materials, especially materials de-picting children engaged in sexual acts with adults or adults as well. Cyber-pornography is a criminal offense, classified as causing harm to persons, especially the youth and the entire societal moral decadence as well.
Bank Cards Theft
The theft of bank cards has evolved from the physical theft of the card to simply the theft of the numbers. Today, bank card hackers do not need to be in the same country to steal other people’s identities. Fraudsters make use of hidden cameras to record ATM card pins and numbers in distinct places such as an eatery payment using POS, or at the ATM. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), a method known as ATM skimming can be used and it involves placing an electronic device on an ATM that scoops information from a bank card’s magnetic strip whenever a customer uses the machine (FBI, 2011).
Also, another cybercrime carried out via this means in Nigeria includes internet order fraud. Internet order frauds involves fraudster inputting stolen cards numbers on online platforms in order to access money illegally.
Cybercrimes on Social Media
In Nigeria, Social networks have gained a very high ground in every sector. The banking industry, government, business, universities use this platform to promote and communicate with each other. Social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Instagram serve as a fertile ground for cybercriminals to launch new attacks. Users create semi-public profiles and can directly communicate with friends without restriction.
Charity Funds
Fraudulent people host fake social network pages for charity soliciting for money. In most cases, these fake social pages are backed up with pictures showcasing various illnesses. Many kind hearted people donate to this cause thereby increasing the pockets of cyber criminals unknown (FBI, 2011).
Stalking, harassment and Blackmailing Scam
This are threatening and blackmailing acts carried out on the internet by fraudsters on a victim. In most cases, the perpetuator’s identity is unknown by the use of a false alias or by blocking the identity by keeping all information hidden while relating with the said victims.
Personal Social Site-Hijacking
This is a major crime all over the world. Many social networking pages have been hijacked by hackers who demands money in turn for releasing the personal social page. This has occurred in sites like Twitter, Facebook and Instagram. These fraudsters go as far as sending messages from the authorized page to friends and family requesting for money or any other kind of assistance (FBI, 2011). Also, another common scenario also occurs when the fraudster creates a social page pretending to be someone else especially celebrities.
Ways To Detect Cybercrimes
The following are some of the ways by which cybercrimes can be detected
Email inspection: inspecting your mails before opening is a very useful way of detecting unusual or strange activities. Email spamming and cyber stalking can be detected by carefully investigating the email header which contains the real email address, the internet protocol address of the sender as well as the date and time it was sent (FBI, 2011). While this may not be the only trick, a genuine address should contain https. The s stands for protected (secured); otherwise any address with no s attached to the http is likely to be cybercriminal sites and should be treated as such.
Intrusion Detection System (IDS)
This is applicable for more serious attacks like breaking into a bank network to steal customer’s sensitive data which cannot be discovered by mere inspection or reviewing. Intrusion detection techniques such as Honey pots, Tripwires, Anomaly detection systems, Operating system commands and Con- figuration checking tools are always employed. Another well-known system is Snort; it is a robust open source tool which exists for monitoring different network attacks. It was first developed in 1998 and gradually evolved into a mature software and even better than many commercial IDS. The system employs the rules established by the administrator to monitor traffic and detect strange behaviors (FBI, 2011).
Effects of Cybercrime
Hassan et al. (2012) identified reduction in competitive edge of organizations, time wastage and slow financial growth, slow production time and increase in overhead cost, as well as defamation of the image of a nation as some effects of cybercrime. Other major effects include monetary losses and loss of privacy. Some of the effects of cybercrime are briefly explained below:
(i)Reduction in Competitive Edge- An organization can lose its competitive advantage and suffer losses when a hacker steals its confidential information and future plans and sells it to a competitor. The time spent by IT personnel on rectifying harmful incidents caused by computer criminals could have been used to earn profit for the organization.
(ii)Productivity Losses and Rising Cost- Cybercrime also reduces the productivity of an organization, as businesses take measures to prevent it by securing their networks. This is time consuming and also affects productivity. In addition, to control viruses and malware, organizations buy security softwares to reduce the chances of attacks. Computer crime therefore increases overhead cost and reduces profit margins. Other effects include the consumption of computer and network resources, and the cost in human time and attention of deleting unwanted messages.
(iii)Monetary Losses- The financial costs to economies and businesses from cyber- attacks include the loss of intellectual property, financial fraud, and damage to reputation, lower productivity, and third party liability. Opportunity cost (lost sales, lower productivity, etc) make up a proportion of the reported cost of cyber-attacks and viruses. However, opportunity costs do not translate directly into costs to the national economy. Businesses face greater damage from financial fraud and intellectual property theft over the Internet. Thus, where cybercrime is rife (especially relating to businesses and financial institutions) there are bound to be untold financial consequences. A research report by Ponemon Institute (2016) shows that, cybercrime cost in six countries (U.S.A, Japan, Germany, U.K, Brazil and Australia) in 2016 ranged from USD$4.3 million to USD$17.3 million annually. The study used a sample of 237 companies in the six countries.
(iv)Destroys Country’s Image- One key negative effect of cybercrime is that it tarnishes a country’s image. Once a country is labeled as a harbor for cybercrime activities, potential investors are cautious in investing in such countries. This has some dire implications for the nation’s macroeconomic stability.
(v)Retards Financial Inclusion- proliferation of cybercrime in a particular country discourages financial inclusion, due to the fear of being a victim of cyber attack.
Measures to Prevent Cybercrime
Cybercrime cannot be easily and completely wiped out, but can be reduced. However, collaborative efforts of individuals alongside with government intervention could go a long way to reduce or minimize it to a reasonable level. Measures to take can be categorized into two:
1.Governments intervention: Although the country has found herself in great mess by the inability of the government to provide basic necessary amenities such as jobs, security and the likes for her citizens which indirectly has led to high rate in cybercrime, there is still need for the nation to come up with adequate laws to tackle this issue. These laws should be formulated by the government and should strictly be adhered to. However, a bill was passed in the year 2015 that would protect and punish electronic fraud and other cyber related crimes. The full implementation of this bill will hopefully bring a strategic approach to fight against cybercrime. Some of the bills are highlighted below: There will be seven years jail term for offenders of different types of computer related fraud, computer related forgery, cyber-pornography, cyber-stalking and cyber-squatting (FBI, 2011).
Defines the liability of service providers and ensures that the use of electronic communications does not compromise national interest. It provides a legal framework to punish cyber criminals thereby improving electronic communication. It specifies all criminal acts and provides guidelines for the investigation of such offences. If these laws are effectively enforced, cybercriminals will be deterred and penalized. This will indirectly reduce the incident of cybercrimes rates, and increase customers. confidence while transacting business online and also correct the negative impression about Nigeria and the citizens.
The case of cybercrime in Nigeria: an overview of yahoo yahoo
The rise of Yahoo boys is strongly interrelated with the introduction of the Internet. The first Internet connection to Nigeria was installed in 1995 through the UNESCO-sponsored Regional Informatics Networks for Africa (Kolawole, 2020). Proliferation of access was slow in the initial years due to Abacha administration’s self-proclaimed efforts to eradicate 419. After the transition to democracy in 1999, Internet and cellular phone technology became more prevalent in Nigerian society (Smith, 2007, p. 31), Furthermore, in the year 2002, an estimated 350 000 Nigerians had access to a mobile phone (Falola & Heaton, 2008, p. 236). By June 2013, there were approximately 120 million active mobile phone subscribers in the country (The Nigerian Communications Commission, 2013). At that time, Yahoo!, (an American multinational Internet corporation known for its search engine, web portal, and email service) was the global market leader (Wall, 2013). Due to Yahoo! being the main Internet service provider in Nigeria for years, “Yahoo” became a Nigerian slang word for the Internet and those using the internet. The ensuing increase in Nigerian Internet fraud led to “Yahoo” and “Yahoo-Yahoo” becoming terms for Internet fraud, while those that conducted these types of fraud became known as “Yahoo boys”.
Cybercrime is a very popular crime in Nigeria. Cyber-criminals in Nigeria are notorious for luring people across the planet into fraudulent scams via spam mails, cash-laundering e-mails, and cleverly designed but fake company partnership offers. Criminals involved in the advance fee fraud schemes (419) known as “yahoo-yahoo” are popularly referred to as “yahoo boys” in Nigeria. Yahoo-Yahoo is the most popular local name for cyber-crime in Nigeria. It usually involves the use of email, particularly through a Yahoo address or yahoo messenger to con unsuspecting victims. The nation has therefore carved a niche for herself as the source of what is now generally referred to as “419” mails named after Section 419 of the Nigerian Criminal Code (Capp 777 of 1990) that prohibits advance fee fraud.
According to Adesina, (2012), the “yahoo boys” use various methods in looting their victims. Many of these fraudsters patronize cyber cafes, browsing the internet all night, sending scam emails to unsuspecting victims. Many foreigners, especially females, who are seeking spouses via the Internet have fallen victim to the “yahoo boys”. They pretend to be ready to go into a lasting relationship with these women and subsequently start to exploit them. Some of them get their victims to help in procuring travel documents to where they reside or even to assist in getting residential permits for them. Once they have been able to achieve their aims, they stop communicating with the victim and move on to another target. In other instances, Adekunle (2019), noted that the scammers use stories of severe life circumstances, tragedies, family deaths, personal injuries, or other hardships to keep their victims concerned and involved in their schemes. They also ask victims to send money to help overcome alleged financial hardships.
In respect to the above, Kolawole (2020), argued that many victims just lick their wounds and carry on with life, but some of the very bitter victims report to the appropriate authorities who often apprehend and prosecute the suspects. The situation is worsened by the fact that several non- Nigerians apprehended for cyber-crimes most often claim to be Nigerians before they are thoroughly investigated and their country of origin established.
According to Kolawole (2020), he noted the gravity of the problem of cyber-crime in the country when in 2007, a young Nigerian musician, Olumide Adegbolu (also known as Olu Maintain) released a hit song called “Yahooze”. The song, which sparked a lot of controversies, speaks of a flashy lifestyle, fancy trips, and expensive drinks if the song star is able to “hammer” (obtain) 1 million dollars and converts it into Naira (Nigerian currency). Critics argued that the song was a glorification of internet fraud or “Yahoo-Yahoo”, pointing out that for a young man to think of living such a lifestyle if he gets such a huge amount of money, he must be a scammer. This has been vehemently denied by Olu Maintain himself claiming that the song was just a reflection of his rise to fame and the change money has made to his life.
The song and the whole controversy that trailed it reflects the current trend of thinking of the Nigerian youths. The quest to possess and ride flashy cars and live frivolous lifestyles has lured many Nigerian youths into the “yahoo-yahoo” business. It is not unusual to enter a cybercafé and find most people there are (mainly) boys in their 20’s or early 30’s who are browsing the internet in search of potential victims. There is even what is called “night browsing” where for a fee, they stay on the internet all through the night to carry out their illicit businesses. The boys often team up to practice their businesses in other to be able to get ideas from each other. (Adeniran, 2008; Adekunle, 2019). Nonetheless, the browsing and internet surfing has changed significantly as many Nigeria youths now have cheap access to a strong internet connection, a VPN, smartphone, and an array of chat financial applications vis-à-vis strong network of like minds (other Yahoo- boys), hence the easy perpetration of crime and sourcing of victims is far easy in today world as compared to the late ’90s.
However in recent times, due to the stringent measures put in place by many financial institutions and various organizations that do online transactions, the cyber-criminals in Nigeria have suffered a setback in their activities. To this end, the more desperate among them have had to resort to spiritual means to enhance their businesses. This is referred to as “Yahoo Plus”. Yahoo plus is an advanced form of yahoo-yahoo whereby the “yahoo boys” employ traditional spiritual means like voodoo or juju to hypnotize their victims into doing their bidding and parting with whatever amount of money they request. The yahoo boys indulge in occultic ritual practices to enhance their potential to defraud people (Kolawole, 2020). It involves employing traditional spiritual means like voodoo or juju in ensuring that the cyber-criminal hypnotizes his victims and thereby brightens the swindler’s chances of getting his victims hypnotized. Once this is successfully done, the victim is guaranteed to keep remitting money from wherever he or she is in the world (Regner et al, 2016).
There are various strategies deployed in achieving this feat. The yahoo boy approaches a spiritualist or diviner who consults, the “oracle” or the “gods”. He is then given diverse options of rituals to perform. These include sleeping in a coffin for certain numbers of days, sleeping in the cemetery, bringing body parts. In other words, he kidnaps a victim, kills him/her, and extracts the body part needed. Some are even told to sleep with virgins as part of the rituals. Most often, young girls are kidnapped and raped, and sometimes killed by these ambitious people (Adekunle, 2019).
According to Kolawole (2020), other forms of rituals performed include sleeping with pregnant women or mad women and sometimes, the yahoo boy may be told not to take his bath for days or months as doing so may have terrible repercussions.
Factors promulgating youths’ involvement in yahoo-yahoo in Nigeria
The promulgating factors for youths’ involvement in yahoo-yahoo in Nigeria can be explained by two major categories: The first is the combination of unemployment and poverty; the second factor is peer group influence. Other factors are believed to be: Nigeria’s political, cultural and economic history; the relative acceptance of yahoo-yahoo in Nigeria society; the anonymity and distance from the victims the internet provided; the minor chances of being arrested by the police; easy access to online platforms; the presence of e-mail extractor software/ on the website; and, lack of knowledge of the grave consequences of internet crime (Olayemi, 2014; Falola and Heaton, 2008; Smith, 2007; Tade and Aliyu, 2011; Adomi and Igun, 2008; Glickman, 2005).
1.Unemployment and Poverty
Between 1960 and 2004, the poverty rate in Nigeria increased from 15% to 54.4% (Tade and Aliyu, 2011). By 2010, it was estimated that 70% of the population lived below the poverty line (Oshewolo, 2010). Unemployment rate stood at 23.9% in 2011 (ibid), but increase to over 50% if youth only are counted (Oshewolo, 2010). The fear of unemployment was mentioned as a crucial factor leading to the growth of yahoo-yahoo (Adeniran, 2008; Adomi and Igun, 2008; Tade and Aliyu, 2011). Due to the prevailing economic hardship bedeviling the country, many youths take solace in yahoo-yahoo as it is regarded as a way of keeping body and soul together just like any other economic endeavor (Balancing Act New Update, 2003). Yahoo-yahoo may not be separated from prevailing kleptomania problem that characterized Nigeria system (Ojedokun and Eraye, 2012). As noted by (Awe, 2004), even though criminal activities cannot be justified for any reason, however, with the prevailing economic conditions individuals may be forced to find alternatives in yahoo-yahoo.
2.Peer group influence
The phrases “my friend has this; I want to get it as well”, “My friend is doing this; I want to do it as well”, “My friend has achieved this, I want to do it as well” represent a desire “to want to belong” often expressed among youths; this resonates with Tade and Aliyu (2011) research. Commanding respects from their peers, attracting the opposite sex and extravagant lifestyle seem to be the major goals for many Yahoo boys. Looking at the age bracket, this behavior is perhaps not surprising when other aspects of their lives and the society around them are considering (Doppelmayr, 2013). He further posited that even if a young person is not already in a group of yahoo-yahoo boys, the youths’ culture around him could be of influence.
3.The social environment breeding Yahoo-Yahoo in Nigeria
Decades of corruption, poverty, and unemployment has created a farce acceptance of the practice of yahoo as a viable source of remuneration amongst some Nigerian youths, hence, wealth is glorified and questions of how it was gotten are often not asked (Tade and Aliyu, 2011). In some cases, yahoo boys are perceived as legitimate business persons and/or persons who can pay a premium for goods and services (Nhan, Kinkade 2009).
4.Faceless Nature of the Internet and it impact on the growth of yahoo-yahoo
The internet is majorly characterized by facelessness (Adomi, 2008). This ensures the total possibilities of having unhindered access to information communication without government or internet service provider (ISP) privacy interference. It allows users to cover their own privacy and ignore spams including unsolicited messages. The faceless nature of the internet allows free exchange of crucial, infamous views or criminal information and activities without attacks from government or employees (Adomi, 2008). In views of Cooper (2002), there are three major features of the internet which combine to turbo charge, that is, accelerate and intensify online fraud. These are; access, affordability, and anonymity. They are jointly referred to as the “Triple A Engine”. The internet is reputed as the world’s largest computer network with an estimate of 1.1 billion users (Cooper 2002). Today, virtually anyone can access the internet with a telephone line, a computer, and a modem. As such, internet technology has created a new form of criminality, that is, ‘cybercrime’ (Adeniran, 2008). It is very much easy for individuals to have access to a computer without leaving home, that is telecommuting, and to engage in hacking and related electronic frauds without leaving a trace. Yahoo boys mostly capitalize on the anonymity offered by the internet to carry out their nefarious activities.
5.Inadequate Law Enforcement
The regulating enactment against cyber offences is not sufficient in itself without proper measures of enactment and implementation; this represent the chronicle of the Nigerian society in regulating cyber offences (Adomi 2008). This situation normally encourages criminals to perpetrate illicit acts (Ojekodun and Eraye, 2012). Studies report that yahoo boys are generally not worried about the police because they can bribe their way out when arrested (Nhan et al., 2009; Smith, 2007; Tade and Aliyu, 2011). The deficiencies in the implementation of regulating acts continues to serve as a bane to the progress recorded in the fight against cybercrime in Nigeria.
6.Ease of Access to the Internet
The easy access to the internet and technology provided by internet and hypertext afford users with fast links to individuals (Zittrian, 2008). “The ease and convenience associated with IT and the Internet is now being exploited to serve criminal purposes” (Adomi 2008 p 719). The internet is fast turning to a household thing for Nigerians (Adomi, 2005). This ease of access to the internet is now being utilized to carry out criminal activities (Adomi, 2008).
7.Ignorance of the gravity of breaking Internet law
Roberts (2007) opined that so many people underscore the severity of cyber offences, with a false though that it is not as grievous as offences committed in the “physical space”, however its normality deviation is the same and its impact could be far reaching in most cases. Also, the distance between the perpetrators and the victims means that they often are ignorant of the consequences of their crimes and tend to underestimate its impact (Grabosky, 2004; Nhan et al., 2009).
Youth perception of yahoo yahoo practice in Nigeria
The concept of youth perception of "Yahoo Yahoo" practice in Nigeria unveils a complex interplay of socio-economic factors, cultural norms, and technological advancements. "Yahoo Yahoo" refers to various forms of internet fraud, including email scams, identity theft, and online romance scams, prevalent among Nigerian youth. Understanding how Nigerian youth perceive this phenomenon sheds light on underlying issues such as unemployment, poverty, social status, and the allure of quick wealth.