AN ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS PARTICIPATION OF THE 18+ WARNING SIGN IN ALCOHOL ADVERTISEMENTS IN NIGERIA TERTIARY INSTITUTION
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework
The heath belief model attempts to explain and predict health behaviour by focusing on the attitudes and beliefs of people. Hochbaum first coined the model in the 1950s and later social psychologists in the United States public health services among other social scientists developed it (Wheeler, 2010). The model was initially developed to explain the lack of participation in health screening and other health programs by members of the society even for their own good. The theory was coined after a free Tuberculosis screening program failed. This model posits that, people make health choices depending on their ability to believe that it is possible to make the necessary changes (Balbach, Smith, & Malone,2006).
Risk communication strategies based on this theory are individual focused since it is an intrapersonal theory. This study attempted to find out to what extent the Health Belief Model was applicable in explaining the role 18+ warning sign play in influencing the perceptions and subsequent behaviour of the youth towards alcohol use. The HBM has five key constructs which contribute to the decision making process in health communication including: perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived threat, perceived benefits and perceived barriers.
Perceived Susceptibility
The HBM suggests that individuals will make health choices based on whether they believe that they are at risk of or susceptible to the negative health condition in question or not. Everyone has their own perception of the chances of suffering negative consequences as a result of indulging in a given health risk. There are those that deny the likelihood, those who admit to a statistical possibility and those who feel extremely susceptible. This study investigated risk communication messages on alcoholic drinks to find out whether they make university students feel at risk of the negative effects brought about by excessive alcohol use. The study sought to find out whether individual students felt that there was likelihood that they can suffer particular negative consequences of alcohol consumption (Ahn, Kim, & No, 2006).
Perceived Severity
The proponents of the HBM suggest that individuals make positive choices when they consider the consequences of not taking up the positive health behaviour as severe. It refers to the beliefs a person holds concerning the effects a given disease or condition would have on one's state of affairs. This study sought to find out whether exposure to risk communication messages on alcoholic drinks makes the youth consider the negative effects of alcohol use and whether they view them as severe. Individuals also consider the perceived threat when they are making health decisions (Wendy,2010).
Perceived Threat
Perceived threat entails the person in question considering their vulnerability to the health risk at hand. This construct delves into understanding whether the individual practicing negative health behaviour actually acknowledges that the behaviour can result to the negative consequence. This study investigated whether Students consider themselves vulnerable to the negative effects of alcohol abuse (Balbach, Smith, & Malone, 2006).
Perceived Benefits and Barriers
In communicating a health risk, individuals have to be convinced of the perceived benefits and barriers. Under this construct, individuals normally consider challenges they must overcome or the cost they must pay in relation to the benefits they will enjoy by taking up the suggested healthy behaviour. These factors were tested in the study. According to the Health Belief Model, the aspect of efficacy is of great import when coming up with risk communication strategies (Ahn, Kim, & No, 2006). The study aimed to find out the level of efficacy among the youth with regards to making the right choice when it comes to alcohol consumption.
2.2 General Literature Review Risk Communication
The purpose of this study was to find out the influence of risk communication on the perception of Nigerian youth towards alcohol. Although we are pervaded with risk messages in every aspect of our lives, there is no guarantee that we will automatically implement the suggested action. Sometimes we do not even notice risk messages. In order to respond appropriately to risk communication messages, audiences have tonotice the message, agree with the recommended action and believe that they can do it (Fischhoff et al., 2011).
Risk communication is any purposeful exchange of information about risks (Covello, 1989). Risk communication is the art used when people need good information to make sound decisions (Fischhoff et al., 2011). In risk communication the audience is provided with only accurate information that is not spun to enable them make sound decisions. Any risk communication strategy must have specific goals. Some of the most common goals include: sharing information, changing beliefs and changing behaviour. All forms of risk communication must be evaluated because even the best science does not guarantee results. It is crucial for risk communicators to come up with specific goals before they come up with riskmessages.
Feeling at risk motivates individuals to change risky behaviour and or take up healthy behaviours. Making people believe that they are indeed at risk is the first and most important step in promoting behaviour change. Individuals will not simply change their behaviour because they have been told of the negative implications (Fischhoff et al., 2011). Risk communication must be supported by other actions. For example, by making the commodity more expensive, they may somewhat reduce accessibility of the same to a part of thepopulation.
With awareness and adequate education people who use or abuse alcohol can achieve attitude and or healthy behaviour change. In Nigeria therefore, the government mandated the placement of 18+ warning sign concerning the dangers of alcohol consumption nonalcoholic drinks packaging. Since the inception of NAFDAC’s risk communicationstrategies,statisticsindicatethattheproblemsresultingfromalcoholuse and abuse are still on the rise in the country especially among young people (NAFDAC, 2014).
Covello et al. (1989) suggested that one of the areas where government agencies have failed in developing risk communication strategies is in addressing specific audiences. They rarely consider the audience’s socio-demographic characteristics, perceptions, attitudes, knowledge of the subject, and primary source of information, among other important factors. The public is not a single monolithic entity. The Nigerian government and non-governmental organizations need to carry out intensive surveys to understand their target audience demographics before they set out to develop effective risk communication strategies (Covello et. al., 1989).
Risk communication must be evaluated to ensure that the goals and objectives are attained. Especially when the communicator is not part of the target audience, a lot of warped assumptions will be made. Many risk communicators and scientists assume that once the audience understands the risk they will not chance exposure. Such assumptions normally lead to failed risk communication strategies. The target audience may end up under estimating, over estimating or simply ignoring the risk at hand (Fischhoff et al., 2011).
This study aimed at finding out whether the youth at the university actually notice the warning signs on alcoholic drinks. If they do, what influence do the 18+ warning sign have on their perception and behaviour towards alcohol consumption? According to Fischhoff et al. (2011), risk communication entails providing people with good information necessary for making sound judgement. Unlike public relations and public affairs, risk communication does not involve any spinning of words or ideas as this may hamper the achievement of the risk communication goals and objectives.
In order to achieve impact, risk communication messages have to trigger attention, achieve comprehension and influence decision making (Breakwell, 2000). Risk messages serve the purposes of either attenuation or amplification of the risk at hand. Risk communication on alcohol use is intended to amplify the issue so as to influence perception and hence, behaviour change. Warning signs on alcoholic drinks packaging must achieve all these stages in order to be effective. Fischhoff et al. (2011) also suggested that people do not always want to make important or even less important decisions for them. Sometimes they rely on the professionals to gauge the pros and cons and simply suggest the best option for them (Fischhoff et al., 2011). This study sought to find out what influence the suggested actions by the 18+ warning sign has on the sample group.
It is impossible to design an effective risk communication message without understanding the target audience’s demographics and the community they live. The channel used to communicate the risk message must be one that will be considered as credible by the target audience as trust is very important in risk communication (Covello et al, 1989).
2.3 18+ warning sign as Risk Communication
Various scholars have proven 18+ warning sign and disclosures to be an effective means of communicating risk (Fischhoff et al., 2011). On various occasions when the risk communicator has taken into account all the necessary factors including: the audience demographics, belief system, the message content and the medium, 18+ warning sign have yielded the desired result. For example, 18+ warning sign on tobacco packaging in many areas around the world have considerably reduced the habit. Health warnings on cigarette packages are among the most common means of communicating the health risk of smoking (Cummings et.al, 2006). In the United Kingdom, grocery stores have to indicate cholesterol levels and fat saturation in their products to enable consumers to make healthy food choices. 18+ warning sign are important for deflating and clarifying misleading information given to the public through advertisements and othermedia.
Various scholars have suggested reasons as to why people fail to respond to 18+ warning sign. Andrews et al. (2011) in their book discuss some of these factors as: inadequate measures of warning recall, impersonal warning information, familiarity to information, distraction, desensitization as a result of false alarms, misinformation or there being no immediate harm and distrust of the warning source (Fischhoff et al., 2011). Scientific evidence reduces the occurrence of well-intended but ineffective communications. From this view, the placing of 18+ warning sign, message content and message framing determine the influence that the 18+ warning sign on alcoholic drinks will have on theaudience.
Placing of 18+ warning sign.
According to Wogalter et al. (2006), 18+ warning sign need to be as large as possible with a good contrast in order to attract attention. They must be sufficiently salient because they are in constant competition for attention with other environmental factors. The 18+ warning sign on alcoholic drinks in Nigeria are written in large enough black fonts contrasted against a white back ground. This makes it easy to notice them. For example, TuskerLarger,apopularbeerinthecountryispackagedinabrownbottle.Thewarning label is found on the side of the bottle in big black fonts against a white background. The message takes up approximately 30% of the bottle making it salient enough.
Message Framing
The framing of risk communication is very important as it will determine whether the message will be ignored, misunderstood or accepted. Some professionals use technical jargon in developing risk communication messages. This kind of communication only confuses laymen making them ignore the messages all together. Others may even find such messages hilarious (Fischhoff et al., 2011). It is necessary to evaluate the effect of risk messages because people can underestimate the communicated risk, they may tune it out or even resist to believe that they are indeed at risk. Proponents of the prospect theory suggest that how risk messages are framed will determine whether they will be accepted or rejected by the audience. The theory states that when the gains are magnified over the losses in a risk communication, individuals tend to adhere to the message and vice versa (Kahneman & Tversky,1979).
The 18+ warning sign on the alcoholic drinks in Nigeria have been framed in direct and unspun language. For example, the second message reads, “excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver cirrhosis.” This is more direct as opposed to writing, “Excessive alcohol consumption can make you sick”. However, the term cirrhosis is not common among the lay men and they may therefore ignore that particular message. Instead the risk communicator could have used an easily understood term like “fatty liver”.
Message Content
For a warning label to produce desired results, the message content should have three aspects including: i) a signal word to attract attention ii) identification of the hazard
iii) consequences if one chances exposure to hazard. Signal words are words like, DANGER, CAUTION and NOTICE (Wogalter et al., 2002). For the alcoholic drinks labels, the word “CAUTION” has been used and this attracts attention to the risk message. The 18+ warning sign also identify the hazard which in this case is excessive alcohol consumption and under-age drinking. The 18+ warning sign also give the audience the consequences of excessivedrinking.
Individual interviews and focus group discussions are the best when collecting information and when monitoring risk communication. The impact of risk communication can be assessed through surveys as well as focus group discussions with volunteers representing the target population. For 18+ warning sign to be effective for risk communication, they must come from a credible and relevant source (Wogalter, 2006). In this study, NAFDAC is the main source of the warning signs on alcoholic drinks packaging. NAFDAC is tasked with the responsibility of carrying out research and implementing the provisions of the Alcoholic Drinks Control Act 2010. The impact of risk communication depends upon a complex interaction between the characteristics of the audience, the source of the message and its content (Breakwell,2000).
2.4 Alcohol Consumption among Youth and University Students
The negative effects of alcohol consumption felt all over the world. Underage drinking and excessive alcohol consumption among young adults is a problem that the world can no longer ignore (WHO, 2001). A study done in America by Windle (2003) on alcohol use among young adults and adolescents’ showed that there was high prevalence of alcohol consumption among youth in college. The study found that most youth in college start drinking because of reduced adult supervision and the presence of parties and other events where alcohol is always readilyavailable.
In assessing the factors affecting alcohol consumption among the youth, psycho developmental factors come to play. Many youth in their adolescents are curious about alcohol especially because it is seen as a privilege only for adults. Such factors commonly lead to underage drinking. Other internal and external factors like beliefs and attitudes, genetic predisposition, family environment and many more also contribute to the taking up of the habit. Self-image is also another important factor that affecting underage drinking. The study by Donovan and Pettigrew (2003) among Australian youth showed that adolescents and to youth who drunk a lot of alcohol were viewed as more mature and masculine by their peers. In trying to seek identity and finding their place in their age group, university students may get into excessive alcoholconsumption.
The problem with underage drinking is that people below 15 years are still not developed. The brain is still undergoing development and alcohol consumption will cause some degree of damage. The problem is severe when the underage drinkers indulge in excessive consumption. Youth who indulge in alcohol consumption are also highly likely to try out other drugs and substances (Arshad et al., 2015). Knowledge of the negative effects of alcohol consumption acts as a basis of curbing the habit (Donovan & Pettigrew, 2003). Simply knowing the effects of alcohol consumption may not make the youth to reach at a point of behaviour change, but when supported with other initiatives it will achieve this objective.
Arshad et al. (2015) carried out a study in Malaysia titled on alcoholism among youth. The study indicated that university students who indulge in alcohol consumption were also likely to perform poorly in their academics. The study also revealed that even those who do considerably well in their academics fail to achieve their optimum potential because of alcohol consumption. In the long term, this will affect their career pursuits and eventually the productivity of the country as a whole. The problem of excessive alcohol consumption among the youth is very apparent globally as well as in Nigeria