AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF UNEMPLOYMENT ON NIGERIA CRIME RATE

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Chapter Summary

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Unemployment

Creativityandhighenergyarethecharacteristics ofyoungpeopleinanynationandifthe energyischanneledpositively,itwillgreatlybenefitnot onlytheeconomicprosperityofnationsbutalsoenhancethemoralvaluesoftheyouth.Whenthesameenergyisusednegatively,itwillleadtosocialunrestandeconomicinstability. Labourforceofacountry is used tomeasureunemploymentandFeyisetan(1991)definesasasetofpeopleorcitizensofacountrywhoarewillingandareabletomakeavailableatanygivenpointintimetheireffortsforgainfulemployment.Thereforeunemploymentisasituationwherepeoplearewillingtoworkbutcouldnotfindemployment.AccordingtotheInternationalLabourOrganizationpeoplewhoarewithoutworkbutavailableforandseekingwork;includingthosewhohavelostjobsandthosewhohavevoluntarilyleftjobs(WorldBank,1998).

Globalunemploymentremainedstableat8%between2010and2011,accordingtoGallupsurveysof148countries.UnemploymentwashighestintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(22%)andsub-SaharanAfrica17%(Marlar,2012).However,Nigeria‟sunemploymentrateisabovethesub-region‟saveragethatincreasedto23.9%in2011comparedwith21.1%in2010and19.7%in 2009(NationalBureauofStatistics,2012);andis projected tohit25%bytheend of2012(USAEmbassy inNigeria,2012).

AccordingtotheNationalBureauofStatistics(2009:238;2010:2;2012),thenationalunemploymentratesforNigeriabetween2000and2011showedthatthenumberof unemployedpersons constituted31.1%in 2000anditreduced to11.9%in 2005butagainincreased to23.9%in2011.Nigeriahasayouthpopulationof80million,representing60%ofthetotalpopulationwithagrowthrateof2.6%peryear andthenationaldemographysuggeststhat theyouth populationremainsvibrantwithanaverageannualentranttothelabourforceis1.8mbetween2006and2011.Yet,majorityoftheyouthhasbeeneitherunemployedorunder-employedbetween2006and2011.Theoverallunemploymentrosefrom12.3%ofLabourforceto23.9%(AwogbenleandIwuamadi,2010).Asurgeinunemploymentwaswitnessedin2009duetoglobal/localeconomicmeltdown.TheWorldBankestimatesthat74millionpeoplebetweentheagesof15and24areunemployed,whichaccountsfor41%ofallunemployedpersons(UN-Habitat,2008).From1990-2000youthunemploymentdatashowedthatthelargestgroupoftheunemployedweresecondaryschoolgraduates.Also,40%ofunemploymentratewereamongurbanyouthsaged20-24and31%oftheratewereamongthoseaged15-19.Two-thirdsoftheurbanunemployedrangedfrom15-24yearsold.Moreover,theeducatedunemployedtendedtobeyoungmaleswithfewdependents(Okafor,2011).In2011,thesituationbecameevenmorecriticalwith37.7%ofNigeriansaged15-24and22.4%ofthosebetweenages25-44werewillingtoworkbutdidnotgetjobs.Onaverage,youthunemploymentrateinNigeriais46.5%in2011(BLG,2012).Asof2009whenNationalBureauofStatisticspublishedunemploymentrateat19.7%,IssaAremutheDeputyPresidentoftheNationalLabourCongresssaid,“FindoutaboutthenumberofpeoplewhoappliedforthelastrecruitmentbytheNigeriaImmigrationServiceandtheCustomsService.Whenmorethanahundredthousandpeopleapplyforjustabout3000vacancies,thenyoushouldknowwhetherthefigures aretrue”(Ekott, 2010).

Unemploymentappearstobetherootcauseof high crime rate inNigeria.Researchsuggeststhatunemployedyouthsaredisproportionatelymorelikelytobeperpetrators,aswellasvictimsofcrimeandviolence(Okafor,2011).Thegrowinggapbetweentherichandpooraffectsthesocietythroughincreasedviolence.Theselfemployedareinquandaryasscantinfrastructuremakesitimpossibleforthemtoplytheirtrade(Okafor,2011).Thisisexacerbatedbypoliticalcorruption,poverty,poorgovernance,increasingpopulation,andlackofpolicyinitiativesandimplementationtosomeextentencouragedcriminalgroupstothriveacrossNigeria.

CausesofUnemploymentinNigeria

Population growth

Thelevelofunemploymentishighlydependentontheoverallstatusoftheeconomy(AwogbenleandIwuamadi,2010).Despiteitsrichesfromoileconomy,employmentinNigeriaisactuallyfalling.Theyearsofcorruption,civilwar,militaryrule,andmismanagementhavehinderedeconomicgrowth.Nigeriaisendowedwithdiverseandinfiniteresources,bothhumanandmaterialbutyearsofnegligenceandadversepolicieshaveledtotheunder-utilizationoftheseresources.Theseresourceshavenotbeeneffectivelyutilizedinordertoyieldmaximumeconomicbenefits.Theseareprimarycauses ofunemployment;howeverscholars haveidentifiedothercausesofunemploymentaswell(Adebayo,1999;Alanana,2003;Echebiri,2005;Ayinde,2008;Morphy,2008;AwogbenleandIwuamadi,2010;andAnyadikeetal,2012).populationgrowth(140,431,790asper2006census)isprojectedtobeover180millionby2020iftheannualgrowthrateof3.2%continues(NationalPopulationCommissionandICFMacro,2009).Whilethepopulationincreases,thenumberofindustriesgrowthisdwindlingandif nothingseriousisdone,bothpopulationandunemploymentwill continuetorise.

OutdatedSchoolCurriculaAndLackOfEmployableSkills

Somescholarshavearguedthatasfarastheformalsectorisconcerned,theaverageNigeriangraduateisnotemployabletherefore,doesnotpossesstheskillsneededbytheemployers(Anyadikeetal,2012).Thisisdueto thecurriculaofmostNigerianschoolsthatdonotincludeentrepreneurskillacquisitiontobenefitjobseekers.Thethirdisadoptionofuntimelyeconomicpolicymeasuresthatcontributedtothedemiseofsmallscaleandcottageindustriesoperatedinbothformalandinformalsectors.FollowingtheintroductionofStructuralAdjustmentPrograminSeptember1986thatusheredinliberalization,deregulationanddevaluationprogramofthedomesticcurrency,manyoftheteethingdomesticfirmscollapsedthatresultedin seriousjoblosses (Bello,2003).Thefourthisoveremphasisonuniversitycertificatesandneglectofskillacquisitiontrainingsthatcontributestoyouthunemployment.AccordingtoManningandJunankar(1998),thetotalnumberofgraduatesproducedinNigeriawas73,339in1986/1987thatroseto131,016 in1996/1997.Over97universitiesoccurinNigeriawithademandforhighereducationwhilethereisproblemof unemployment.Therealityisthattheeconomydoesnothavethecapacitytoabsorballunemployedgraduatesbecauseover800industriesand37factorieswerecloseddownin 2009alone(Anyadikeetal,2012).

Corruption

Corruption, which Okafor (2011) acknowledged as having permeated the entire social structure of Nigeria, has robbed the country of developing a vibrant economic base. Funds meant for development projects have been misappropriated, diverted, or embezzled and stashed away in foreign banks, while some incompetent and corrupt bureaucrats and administrators in the public enterprises and parastatals have liquidated these organizations (Okafor, 2007). Also, there is no vibrant manufacturing sector which has the capacity to absorb unemployed youths in Nigeria as according to Adesina (2013), there are over 800 collapsed industries in Nigeria and over 37 factories closed shops in 2009. About half of the remaining operating firms have been classified by Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN) as “ailing,” a situation that poses a great threat to the survival of manufacturing in the Country. The banking sub-sector,due to the ongoing reforms and consolidation has sent several young men and women back into the labour market. Instead of the sector generating employment, it is shrinking. The manufacturing sector has not fared any better. For example, the number of persons in paid employment at the end of 2010 in the cement manufacturing sub-sector stood at 3,318 compared to 4,142 in 2009, a decline of 19.9 per cent. Salami (2013), is of the opinion that Nigeria’s spiraling youth unemployment can be said to have significantly contributed to the dramatic rise in social unrest and crime such as Niger Delta militancy, Boko Haram and the Jos crisis.

Suggested Solutions to Unemployment in Nigeria

Adesina (2013), Nwanguma, et al. (2012) and Salami (2013) are very experienced researchers in issues that have to do with labour force or employment in Nigeria and they recommended the following as main solutions to unemployment problem in Nigeria based on problems found.

Good and Competent Governance

Among the measures to curb unemployment suggested by respondents in the research of Nwanguma, et al. (2012), having good governance or leadership has the highest percentage (15.8 %).

Aggressive Emphasis on Entrepreneurial Education:

Entrepreneurship has been primarily suggested by many scholars to be one of the key factors to curb unemployment in Nigeria. If entrepreneurship is seriously driven by government through encouraging youth who are interested with interest-free loan and other forms of enabling environment creating platforms, unemployment will definitely reduce.

More Investment in Youth Intensive Sectors (YIS)

These include ICT, Entertainment and hospitality, e.g. Nollywood, fast food industry, catering and hotel service. Just as Hollywood, Bollywood, Ghollywood bring a lot of revenue to the government of the U.S., Indian and Ghana respectively, Nollywood- the Nigerian movie industry today can also receive renewed interest from the government to develop and act as one of the major employers of labour in the country.

Diversification of the Economy

Nigeria should cease from relying entirely on oil whose price fluctuates according to the world market. Agriculture, ICT, Hospitality and Entertainment are other promising avenue for Nigeria to diversify her economy. According to Adesina (2013), if revolution in mobile communications can provide this great employment as we see currently in Nigeria, other sectors too can do the same with similar commitment.

Conducive Investment Climate or Enabling Environment

Good infrastructure, generous access to finance and effective power supply are some of the things needed for entrepreneurship to thrive in any community. Enabling Environment, especially in the area of power supply and finding a lasting solution to our security challenges will boost employment generation in Nigeria. Salami (2013) believes that while entrepreneurship may not be the absolute panacea to youth unemployment, an enabling environment that nurtures entrepreneurship is capable of reducing youth unemployment by half.

Value Re-orientation, Honesty, Dignity of Labour and Hard work

Until very recently, Nigerians are used to being hardworking, honest and patriotic. The trend has however changed in the last few decades. If Nigerian leaders and youth can return back to their original honest and hardworking folks they were known for, unemployment might reduce because people will do whatever their hands find to do not minding whether it is not a white-collar job Unfortunately, this advice may not be obeyed by our teeming youth if they do not see such in our leaders.

Crime

Crime is a public wrong. It is an act of offense which violates the law of the state and is strongly disapproved by the society. Crime is defined as acts or omissions forbidden by law that

can be punished by imprisonment or fine. Murder, robbery, burglary, rape, drunken driving, child neglect and failure to pay taxes are examples of crimes. The term crime is derived from the Latin word “crimen” meaning offence and also a wrong-doer. Crime is considered as an anti-social behaviour. Each society Crime is a public wrong. It is an act of offense which violates the law of the state and is strongly disapproved by the society. Crime is defined as acts or omissions forbidden by law that can be punished by imprisonment or fine. Murder, robbery, burglary, rape, drunken driving, child neglect and failure to pay taxes are examples of crimes. The term crime is derived from the Latin word “crimen” meaning offence and also a wrong-doer. Crime is considered as an anti-social behaviour. Each society may define crime in a different perspective. A crime may be legal or illegal. Illegal and punishable crime is the violation of any rule of administration or law of the state or practice of any wrongdoing and harmful to self or against third parties, provided in criminal law. Legal and not punishable crime is all acts of self-defense.may define crime in a different perspective. A crime may be legal or illegal. Illegal and punishable crime is the violation of any rule of administration or law of the state or practice of any wrongdoing and harmful to self or against third parties, provided in criminal law. Legal and not punishable crime is all acts of self-defense.

Elements Of Crime:

For an act of crime to be accomplished, the following four elements are needed:

Individual: The first and the most important element for commission of a crime is an individual who has an intention and is prepared to commit a crime.

Mensrea: Mensrea in Latin means “guilty mind”. For a crime to be committed, a criminal intention is an essential element.

Actusrea: Actusrea in Latin means “guilty act”. For a crime to be committed, along with a criminal intention there should also be an external act.

Injury/hurt: The criminal act should be accompanied by an injury or hurt which is physical, mental or monetary which violates a law of state.

Stages of committing a crime:

Intention

For the commission of crime, the first important stage is criminal intention. However, just having a criminal intention is not punishable until it is conveyed to someone else in words or by acts. Example: An intention to kill someone.

Groundwork

To commit a crime, prior preparation is necessary if the crime is intentional. It is difficult for the court to punish an individual purely based on a preparation plan until and unless it is executed. For example, murder, dacoity, etc.

Preliminary crime

An attempt to commit a crime is considered as preliminary crime. An attempt should include a criminal intention, an act towards committing a crime and an act of crime which is not completely accomplished. Example: Attempt to murder.

Completion of crime

This is the last stage in commission of crime. The criminal completes the crime. A suspect is guilty of an offence only if he succeeds in his criminal activity. Example: Successful accomplishment of murder.

Causes Of Crime

No individual is a born criminal, it is the situations and the conditions around the individual which make him act as a criminal. There are several causes which make an individual turn into a criminal. The main causes of crime are:Social causes, Economic causes, Psychological causes, Biological causes,and Geographical causes.

Social Causes Of Crime

Family disorganization

Family plays the most important role in an individual’s life. In olden days, there were joint families and there was always a family control on the children. In urban areas today, each member of the family is busy pursuing their own paths. The children are neglected and family control is lifted up and hence there are no restrictions. Individuals who are a part of nuclear families and broken families resort to crimes due to lack of love, affection and proper attention.

Upbringing of the individual

Too much strictness causes heavy influence on minds of the children. Scolding and abusing children causes humiliation and irritation in children and they become delinquents. Moral values are imported to children by their parents. It is the duty of the parents to nourish their children in healthy circumstances. If the parents resort to illegal acts, the children will also do the same. A child is first influenced by his parents and then by his own brothers and sisters. If they resort to illegal acts such as selling block tickets at cinema theatres, the younger ones also tend to do the same acts.

Defective education

Lack of proper education results in poor judgement and the individual will fail to distinguish between right and wrong. Ethical and religious education has no place in the modern education system. Even after completing education, many individuals remain unemployed. Late employment leads to late marriage increasing criminal activity.

Hype created by media

Cinemas and newspapers have led to an increase in criminal activity. The hype created by the media relating to different crimes, modus-operandi and the consequences motivate young individuals to resort to crimes.

Drinking and drug use

The consumption of alcohol and use of drugs of abuse are the most important causes of crime. Under the influence of alcohol and drugs, the person loses his sense of discrimination between good and bad and right and wrong and hence commits crime. This not only affects the individual but also his entire family.

Unhappy marriages and dowry system

A marriage where a girl or boy dislikes his partner & remains unhappy and may force individuals to commit suicides. Dowry system is also a main cause of crime.

Family planning

In poorer sections of society, parents do not follow family planning and they have a large number of children. But they are unable to fulfil the basic necessities of children due to their meagre income. To fulfil their basic necessities, these children become preys of pick-pocketing, smuggling, prostitution, etc.

War and post-war conditions

Wars in different countries create unbearable social and economic circumstances. The individuals who lose their parents and loved ones during war become prey to bad habits.

Social disorganization

Disorganization in the society or country may affect badly upon the people’s living. For example, prior to Britishers, Indian villages were very peaceful and self- sufficient. Due to the British rule in India, rapid changes such as industrialization, urbanization, etc. occurred. Joint families disappeared and nuclear families came in. Unemployment increased. India was split into 3 countries, i.e., India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. During the partition, immigrants flew from one country to another. The immigrants had no food, livelihood. To earn livelihood, these immigrants started illegal acts such as smuggling, weapon- selling, etc. Social disorganization causes decline in the effectiveness of institutional and informal forces and weakens the social control in communities or neighbourhood. This results in crime.

Economic causes of crime

Poverty

Money is the centre of life. Everything and every relation in this world is dependent on money. Poverty is the mother of crime. The poor people are unable to fulfil their basic necessities. To fulfil the basic necessities, they resort to crimes like burglaries, murders, suicides, etc.

Unemployment

Many young individuals who are continually unemployed resort to suicides due to frustration. Some others resort to thefts, pick-pocketing, robberies, etc. Hence, unemployment is a major cause of crime.

Industrialization and urbanization

Urbanization is the result of industrialization. The long working hours and the petite amount of money they get, results in individuals resorting to crime.

Psychological causes of crime

Intellectual weakness

Weak minded persons tend to criminal activities very easily. Intellectual weakness is a cause of crime.

Mental diseases

The person who suffers from mental disorders tends to do illegal and violent activities. Such individuals become unsocialized, irritable, cruel, obstinate, suspicious, self-centred, lonely, full of feelings of revenge, backward and hyper-sexual or uncontrolled in their behaviour. Such individual does not repent for his violent acts.

Characteristics of personality

Due to social, economic or psychopathic reasons, an individual may turn into a psychic. An abnormal person possesses degree of freedom, irresponsibility, revolt, homicidal tendency, suspicion, lack of control, sadism, emotions, social maladjustment, ill-behaviour, immaturity, etc. He tends to do violent acts. He becomes naughty, explosive, disobedient and unsocial. He indulges in gambling, cigarette smoking, narcotic drug consuming, breaking things, absconding from house, prostitution, thieving, etc.

Emotional instability

An abnormal individual possesses emotional instability. He does not like discipline. He suffers with inferiority complex. He indulges in criminal behaviour. He does violent acts with emotions. If his hero steals a diamond from Government treasury, he sees the picture several times and repeats the same act

Biological Causes Of Crime

Age

Crime is more prominently committed by individuals in the second and third decades of life.

Gender

On a whole, males commit more crimes when compared to females.

Body type

Muscular body type individuals are found to commit more crimes.

Hormonal causes

Testosterone hormone is the hormone which is correlated to criminality

Geographical causes of crime

Cities or counties with larger populations have higher crime rates. Poorly maintained neighborhoods correlate with higher crime rates. High residential mobility is associated with a higher crime rate. More taverns and alcohol stores, as well as more gambling and tourist establishments, in an area are positively related to criminality. There appears to be higher crime rates in the geographic regions of a country that are closer to the equator.

Types of crime

Personal crimes

Personal crimes are those crimes which target an individual person. These include murder, assault, sexual assault, etc.

Assault Illegally attacking an individual with weapons like gun, knife, etc. in a severe manner is called assault. Assault results in severe injury. Domestic or family violence also involves assault. Homicide

Unlawfully killing an individual is called homicide or murder.

Sexual assault: Sexual assault involves rape

Property crimes

Burglary

Illegally entering into a property and committing theft is called burglary.

Theft:

Illegally taking away one’s property without force and without the notice of the owner. Example: Pick pocketing, Shoplifting, Stealing bicycles, etc.

Arson fires

Deliberately putting one’s property such a building, motor vehicle, etc. on fire is called arson fires.

Automobile theft: Unlawful theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle.

Vandalism: Damaging public or private property without permission is referred to as vandalism.

White collar crime

Crimes committed by individuals belonging to high society. The crimes are committed to a large extent in their work place.

Embezzlement:

Misusing money or property of an organization for an individual’s personal use.

Identity theft

Unlawfully using a person’s social security number, credit card number, etc. for financial gain is termed as identity theft.

Fraud: Deception of one party by another party for personal or financial gain is called fraud.

Corruption

is the use of power by government officials for illegal private gain. It includes bribery, embezzlement, etc.

Organized crimes

are defined as acts which are committed by two or more criminals as a joint venture in an organized manner. These crimes involve kidnapping, dacoities, marketing of illegal or prohibited goods, money laundering, trafficking people, buying votes, etc.

Juvenile delinquency

Also called as youth crime. It is the crime committed by an individual under the age of 18years.

Computer crime

Cyber crime is an act of crime that involves computer and a network. The computer may have been used in the commission of a crime, or it may be the target. Net crime refers to criminal exploitation of the internet. Examples of the computer crime include cyber terrorism, cyber warfare, harassment on the internet, spam, internet fraud, etc

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Deprivation theory

Thisclassicaltheoryexplainswhypeopleengageinviolence(riots,rebellion,coups,criminalactivitiesetc.).Itexaminesthepsychologicalcausesinvolvingfrustrationandaggressionas theprimarysourceof humancapacityforviolence.Frustrationisneithernecessarynorsufficientlyleadstoviolencebutgreedmaydrivetoviolence.Frustrationisamuchstrongermotivatingforceandprolongedfrustrationmaycausegreaterprobabilityforaggression.Relativedeprivationisthediscrepancybetweenwhatpeoplethinktheydeserveandwhattheyactuallythinktheycanget(Gurr, 1970).

ItisnoteworthythatGurrdoesnotlooktoamoreabsoluteorobjectiveindicatorofdeprivationasthesourceofviolence.Peoplecangetusedtoabadstateof affairs,evenonethatoffers solittleaccesstolife-sustainingresources thatmembersofthegrouparestarving ordyingofremediablediseasesorexposure.However,ifthereisasignificantdiscrepancybetweenwhattheythinktheydeserveandwhattheythinktheywillget,thereisalikelihoodof rebellion.Gurrpositsthistobethecasebecausethereisafeelingthattheirexpectationcannotbemetifthecurrentstatuesqueismaintained.Thefirstsituationmaybeadesperateone,butitisthesecondthatwillbefrustrating.Sofrustrationproducesaggressionat individual,groupandsocietallevels. This theorycouldbeused tolinkrisingnumberofunemployedyouthsandviolentcrimesinNigeria. A country that produce thousands ofuniversity graduate every yearwithout commensurateemploymentopportunitiesmaybecreatingafertilegroundforafeeling offrustrationamongtheseunemployedgraduates.Naturally,thereisafeelingofjoyandgreatexpectationswhenastudentgraduatesfromauniversity-theseexpectationsgraduallyfadesawayandisreplacedbyfeelingoffrustrationaftersomeyearsofjoblessnesscausedbylittleopportunitythesocietyofferstheyounggraduate.Asfrustrationprolongsandthefeelingofdeprivation of whatthatisexpectedincreases,thereisagreaterprobabilitythattheindividualorpeoplecanresorttoillegitimateactivitiesin ordertoactualisetheirexpectationsin thesociety.

Theriseinviolentcrimes(robbery,kidnapping,thuggery,terrorism)committedbyyouthsisasign of„gap‟inthesociety.Thesocietyalreadyhasexpectationsforindividualsandestablishedmeans of achievingthem.Whenthemeansarelimitedastheyouthunemploymentis46.5%in2011,peopleareforcedtoachievethegoalsthroughillegalmeanstofulfilsocietalexpectations.KidnappingsareontheincreaseacrossNigeriaandtheunemployedyouthsviewthebusinesslucrative.Theyareavailableforrecruitmentbypoliticians.IntheNorthernpart,theyarerecruitedbothbypoliticiansandreligiousgroupstobeusedinpolitical,religiousandterrorismacts.IntheSWNigeria,theyfindeasyemploymentinpettycriminalactivities.Theculturemustatleastaccept,if notapprove,violentactionas ameans toanend.Thiscouldbe thereasonwhysuicidebombingisexclusivetotheNorthernpartofthecountryasviolenceisencouragedbysomeIslamicsects.Politicalviolenceis alsolikelyifthecurrentleadershipand orthesocio-economicandpoliticalsystemareseenasillegitimate.

2.3 Chapter summary

In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several authors and scholars on the empirical study on the unemployment in Nigeria and crime. The works of scholars who conducted empirical studies have been reviewed also. The chapter has made clear the relevant literature.