AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE CONSEQUENCE OF DRUG AND RELATED SUBSTANCE ABUSE ON THE STUDY HABIT OF STUDENTS
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
- Conceptual Framework
- Theoretical Framework
- Empirical framework
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept Of Drug Abuse
Today, there is rising worry throughout the globe about the increasing number of young people who use substances that the law does not allow or ban. One of the most serious issues in educational institutions is the presence and intensity of drug usage. This has an impact on a variety of areas of learning, including student performance.
Chemical that alter mental, emotional, and behavioral functioning are known as drugs AECN(2000). The usage of illegal substances has grown in recent years, according to the World Day report (2015). According to the research, a prominent global trend is the rising availability of a wide range of medications. According to a research issued by the United Nations Drug Control Programme (2015), 4.8 percent of the world population uses drugs, but the disturbing reality is that those addicted are the young, according to the UN Drug Control Programme executive director (2015). According to reports, drug usage is increasing while the average age of new users is decreasing. According to a poll conducted in the Czech Republic, 37 percent of new drug users were youngsters aged 15 to 18. The usage of drugs is unique. In Egypt, where around 6% of selected secondary school kids acknowledged to having tried with drugs, heroine is becoming a severe issue. In Pakistan, it has been claimed that the number of people who began using heroine at the age of 15-20 years has doubled. The importance of Africa in the global medicine supply chain is growing. According to UNDOC (2017), the continent is already the second biggest area for cannabis cultivation, trafficking, and use, accounting for 26% of worldwide cannabis seizures in 2001. (2017). Drug usage is now more common in Kenya than it has ever been NACADA (National Association of Colleges and Universities) (2015). Students in secondary schools, higher institutions, and universities make up the majority of users
In Kenya, drug usage is now more common than it has ever been. Drugs are being used by teenagers to alter their mental, economic, and behavioral functioning. Drug use at educational institutions causes pupils to lose focus in class, have a high percentage of absenteeism, and fail tests, resulting in low academic performance. A drug is a substance that, by its chemical effects, may cause a change in biological function (Okoye, 2015). It's also thought to be a chemical that alters perceptions, cognition, emotion, behavior, and other bodily processes (Balogun 2016). As a result, they may be thought of as a chemical modulator of living tissues that could bring about a variety of effects.
History Of Drug Abuse
Herbs, leaves, and plants have been utilized to treat and manage ailments since the dawn of time. The use of properly prescribed medications has been a boon. "Chronic use of drugs may cause substantial, often irreparable harm to teenagers' physical and psychological development," according to Falco (1988), as stated by Balogun (2016). Depending on how medications are used, they might be useful or dangerous.
Drug usage may be traced back to pre-colonial times, when societies drank and consumed alcohol and other narcotics as part of their customs. The use of narcotics was carefully governed by the virtues and ideals of the communities. In general, alcohol, tobacco, and other substances were reserved for the elders, who were almost always male seniors. Because of solid social institutions, drug use as a societal issue was very uncommon.
Strong familial relationships that went across many social organizations helped to maintain legal levels or the absence of drug usage. To dissuade drug abuse, traditions and taboos were upheld. Drugs have been used by humans for thousands of years in various forms. Wine has been used since the time of the early Egyptians, since 4000 B.C., and medicinal marijuana usage in China dates back to 2737 B.C. The active ingredients of medications were not extracted until the nineteenth century A.D. There was a period when several of these newly found chemicals, such as morphone, landaium, and cocaine, were wholly uncontrolled and readily given by doctors for a broad range of diseases. During the American Civil War, morphine and hypodermic needles were widely distributed, and injured soldiers went home with their supplies. Opium dens grew in popularity. In the early 1900s, the United States had an estimated 250,000 addicts.
Types Of Drugs Abuse
Alcohol is the most abused psychoactive substance in the United states, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (2018), with roughly 90% of pupils taking it before graduating from high school. Alcohol is also the most widely misused substance in Nigeria, according to a research by NAFDAC (2018), with around 61 percent of the population abusing it. According to the same research, 40.9 percent of pupils in Nairobi Province and 26.3 percent in Central Province abuse alcohol. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant, according to Perkinson (2002), and it dulls the brain, making learning harder. According to NAFDAC (2018), the most frequent forms of misused medications in Nigeria are as follows:
Stimulants:
These are medications that stimulate the central nervous system by acting directly on it. Users first report good outcomes, such as increased energy. These are mostly derived from the caffeine molecule.
Hallucinogens:
These are drugs that help the brain's sensory processing unit work correctly. As a consequence, distorted perception, anxiety and euphoria, sadness, and internal joy emerge. Marijuana is generally used to make these. Take, for example, LSD.
Narcotics:
These drugs are extremely addictive and give pain relief while also promoting sleep. They're found in heroin, codeine, opium, and other narcotics.
Sedative:
These are some of the most often used and misused substances. This is partly owing to the assumption that they alleviate stress and anxiety, and that some of them promote sleep, reduce tension, induce relaxation, or help users forget about their troubles. Valium, alcoholic promotatazine, and chloroform are used to make them.
Miscellaneous:
This is a class of volatile solvents or inhalants that provide the user euphoria, emotional dis inhibition, and constant thinking distortion. Glues, spot removers, tube repair, fragrances, chemicals, and other similar items are the most common suppliers.
Tranquilizer:
They are mostly generated from Librium, Valium, and other sedatives and are thought to create calmness without causing drowsiness. They are mostly generated from Librium, Valium, and other sedatives and are thought to create calmness without causing drowsiness.
Causes Of Drug Abuse
Peer Pressure
Peer pressure, in which each student desires to align himself with his or her drug-using classmates. Drug addicts, like other individuals, seek approval for their behavior from their friends, whom they try to persuade to join them in their habit as a method of gaining acceptability, according to the United Nations, (2018).
Gatonye, (2016) discovered that peer pressure has a detrimental or positive influence depending on the quality of the peer group while performing an evaluation on substance and drug addiction in Nigeria schools. Unfortunately, the same social pressure that keeps a group of people following a set of rules may also lead a vulnerable person down the wrong road.
According to a study conducted by Kyalo and Mbugua (2017) on narcotic drug problems in Kenya's Muranga South District, a case study of drug abuse by students in secondary schools, the majority of drug users have friends who use drugs, and they gang together even at school to plan how to get the drugs. Because all of this is done in secret, it takes up the majority of their study time.
Muma, (2018) did research on the impact of drug misuse on discipline among secondary school students in the Nakuru municipality and found that there is a substantial link between the subjects' drug use and their friends' drug use. According to him, if a teenager hangs around with other adolescent drug users, the likelihood of drug usage increases much more.
Another study of teenagers in Southern Nigeria discovered that drug-using pupils got their drugs through drug-using classmates in the same or nearby schools.
Imbosa, (2016) conducted an analysis of tactics utilized in treating drug usage issues, utilizing a case study of Nairobi provincial boys secondary schools, and found that pupils who reported taking drugs used more drugs than their abstinent peers. In his study "Youth in Peril: Alcohol and Drug Abuse in Kenya," Kiiru (2015) confirms these findings, arguing that peer pressure influences youths to use substances under the false impression that some drugs stimulate appetite for food, increase strength, and provide wisdom as well as courage to face life.
Parental Or Family Influence And Drug Abuse Among The Students.
Many adolescents are encouraged to imitate their parents' drug-using behavior, to the point that some students become worse than their parents; much has been said and written on the link between the family environment and drug usage. The family, particularly the parents, are the child's primary socializing agents, molding them from an early age.
According to Muchemi (2015), a child's initial norm of behavior is formed by the lessons of parents and other adults in the environment. He went on to say that if a youngster notices a disconnect between his or her parents' "teachings and behaviors," it will develop uncertainties, which will continue throughout adolescence, leading to deviant behavior.
Shoemaker (2018) conducted a research on delinquency theories, which included an investigation of the causes of delinquent behavior in New York and the link between delinquency, such as alcohol and marijuana misuse, and slack, inconsistent, or harsh parental punishment. The way parents and children interact, as well as the overall climate in the house, are all linked to juvenile delinquency. Furthermore, having a parent with a drug issue raises the likelihood of the child getting the same problem. Other research focused on family difficulties and the impact of drug usage on young people.
In Nigeria, Darcis (2016) conducted a Rapid Situation Analysis (RSA) research and discovered that being a man in an unstable home was linked to a higher likelihood of drug misuse. Clinical studies on drug use among students and out-of-school kids in metropolitan regions of Nigeria supported this notion, showing that cannabis abusers likely to be young males, especially students who were deprived of parental supervision and warmth as children.
According to a NACADA study released in 2018, young people aged 10 to 24 who had parents who used or sold alcohol and other drugs were more likely to misuse these substances. According to Field, (2016), preventing poor children from becoming poor adults; a report of the independent review on poverty and life chance, youngsters, particularly students who sell on behalf of their parents, are sometimes exposed to drug usage in the future.
Adolescents with substance-abusing parents had a higher risk of parental and family difficulties than adolescents whose parents do not misuse substances, according to Kikuvi (2019). This may lead to a lack of bonding between parents and children, which can lead to a lack of dedication to extracurricular activities and, in some cases, teenage drug use. Imbosa (2016) adds that kids who lack parental support are more likely to seek help and understanding elsewhere. The lifestyle of a drug misuse sub-group attracts many people who want love, compassion, and support.
Mass Media
Through television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, society is continually assaulted with mass media messages. Although news organizations have a limited amount of room to devote to problems, illegal substances are certainly noteworthy. Despite the fact that the media was designated almost 10 years ago as a "new battlefield" for the alcohol and other drug industry, according to Imbosa (2016), understanding of the nature of news media reporting remains limited. How much room is given to drugs, how concerns are handled, and who talks and who does not speak are all factors to consider. Even less is known about the effects of the news media on drug attitudes, especially among young, who are the most prone to use illegal substances.
Media coverage of violence, body image, and cigarette smoking has been shown to have a potentially dramatic and even deadly impact on attitudes and behavior in other domains. We also know that, contrary to popular belief, youngsters continue to be avid users of conventional news sources like newspapers and television news.
In both rich and developing nations, social pressure from the media and peers is a universal risk factor for drug addiction among teenagers. Imbosa, (2016). This is particularly frequent in metropolitan areas, where advertising on radio, television, and billboards is widely distributed. Young people in cities are more likely than their peers in rural regions to be exposed to pictures advertising cigarettes and alcohol. Muma, (2018) agrees with this theory, claiming that external forces, particularly the media, have a role in juvenile drug usage. The amount of time individuals spend watching television, he claims, has a harmful impact on their conduct.
Availability of the Drugs
Drug availability and affordability are linked to drug misuse. Kaylo (2017) observed in his baseline study on "children in risk; alcohol and drug misuse in Kenya" that the availability of illicit drugs like heroine, cocaine, and mandrax, as well as legal substances like cigarettes and alcohol, might lead to drug addiction. The easy availability of most drugs seems to be the most crucial factor in Kenyan youth's widespread substance use and addiction. For example, pharmacists sell medications (drugs) without requiring a prescription from a doctor. Drug peddlers in Nairobi have been warned of citizen arrests.
According to Kikuvi (2019). who backs this up by saying that addicts have been reported going to pharmacies to get near to Roche, a medicine that should only be supplied on prescription in Lamu town. Kikuvi (2019) discovered that commonly used chemicals are cultivated, processed, and given openly to children and teenagers. Among students from the underprivileged community, cheap and filthy alcohol such as changaa is widely accessible.
According to Fieldl., (2016), when performing a research on the prevalence and cure for drug misuse and indiscipline in Kenya's Kisumu County learning institutions, it was discovered that the majority of the students at the study used illicit substances since they were readily available. It was also noted that the availability of illicit substances aided the interests of those who stand to profit financially from their sale. According to the study, if drugs are readily available, students may choose to misuse them despite regulatory norms prohibiting drug usage.
Drug accessibility was identified to be one of the primary contributing elements of drug misuse in Kenya, according to a survey conducted by the National Agency for the Campaign Against Alcohol and Drug Abuse, NACADA, (2018) on a fast situation assessment of the condition of drug and substance abuse in Kenya. Traditional liquor is the most common sort of alcohol, followed by wines, spirits, and changaa. Changaa was reported to be the most accessible region in Western Kenya, followed by Nyanza and Northern Eastern Kenya. Traditional liquor was found to be most available in the Coast, Western, and North Eastern regions, with traditional liquor being least accessible in the North Eastern. Nairobi had the best access to wines and spirits, followed by Central, while North Eastern had the worst availability. In Nyanza, Kuber was judged to be the most accessible, followed by Nairobi, while Central was the least accessible. Nairobi has the greatest access to Miraa (khat), while Nyanza had the least. Bhang was found to be easy to get in Nairobi and difficult to obtain in the North Eastern region.
The Coastal area had the highest access to cocaine and heroin, while the North Eastern region had the least. The drop in the age at which respondents reported their entry into drugs is of considerable concern in NACADA's (2018) report; the data for those aged 10 – 14 years old indicated a rise from (0.3) percent in 2007 to (1.1) percent in 2012 for those reporting ever used bhang. This was seen in the groups of rural, male, in school, and low socioeconomic level. For example, NACADA (2018) found that up to 50% of families in Bungoma East Sub-County are active in making, purchasing, and reselling brews, increasing children's access to alcohol.
Type of School
According to a study conducted by Imbosa (2016) in Nairobi schools, drug usage was more prevalent among pupils who attended day schools rather than boarding institutions. The discrepancy might be attributable to the fact that boarding school pupils were tightly supervised, while day scholars were exposed to the material via their own neighborhoods and communities, according to the poll.
Muma (2018) conducted a study in Kenyan schools and discovered that the sort of education pupils get has an impact on their drug usage. Kenyan youngsters who had attended day schools rather than boarding schools were more likely to experiment with common drugs, according to him. He cited the following reasons: boarding school students are more strictly supervised, while day school students are often exposed to drug addiction as they travel to and from school on a regular basis. Koech (2016) discusses how to start a campaign to combat escalating drug usage. According to Koech (2016), school proximity (connection to school activities, aims, and aspirations) was a significant driver of drug use. Those who are more involved in school are less likely to take drugs. Drug abuse is not just confined to day schools where students can easily access drugs because they are not confined within the school premises, according to a study conducted by Darcis (2016) on factors contributing to drug abuse among secondary school students in Central, Kirinyaga division, Kirinyaga District, Kenya. Boarding school students use alcohol in the same way as day school students do. Similarly, a research on the sociology of education in Nigeria by Darcis (2016) found that the proportion of pupils who drink alcohol in day schools is greater than in boarding schools. This is due to the fact that they are not restricted to the school grounds.
Muchemi, (2015) says that there is a substantial association between drug misuse and the kind of school a student attends in a research conducted to establish methods for prevention and intervention of drug addiction in Nigeria. He said that mixed-gender schools had a higher rate of drug misuse than girls-only or boys-only institutions. He also discovered that mixed schools had inherent issues relating to student drug misuse. Boys' schools had significant drug misuse issues, while girls' schools did not. This suggests that since the girls and boys were in the same school, the effect of their friends was greater.
Age
Muchemi (2015) asserts that young people are individuals in development and change, and that during this period they experiment with newly discovered aspects of their physical and emotional selves, according to a study on distress and academic achievement among affluent adolescents; a study of externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors and school performance. During this time, young people are more prone to use drugs and get hooked.
"Adolescence is a phase of adaptation," according to Field(2016), an English psychoanalyst. Every teenager is troubled." The problems that teenagers face in a changing society have been identified by sociologists, anthropologists, and others. Adolescence is widely accepted and understood in many societies as the time when a young person develops his or her own identity, usually through meaningful conflict with his or her parents or older generation. It has been claimed that adolescence is a phase of health antagonism on the part of young people who are finding themselves in the face of older values and customs. According to Field (2016), the kids' aggressive and deviant conduct at this period may give a remedy for him. In the United States of America, drug use often starts in adolescence, and the average age of commencement is 13-15 years, with the majority of adult addicts starting in their teens.
From the mid-1970s until the twenty-first century, Muchemi (2015) performed a monitoring research that tracked teenage drug use preferences among American eighth grade students each year. According to this poll, more than half (54%) of American high school graduates admitted to taking illegal drugs at some point in their lives in 2000.
According to the NACADA (2018) survey on the rapid situation assessment of the status of drug and substance abuse in Kenya, it is concerning that the age at which respondents revealed their initiation into drugs is decreasing. The data for those aged 10-14 years olds showed an increase from 0.3 percent in 2007 to (1.1) percent in 2012 for those reporting ever using bhang. This rise was seen in the categories of rural, male in school, and low socioeconomic status.
Social Economic Factors
Poverty is a common trait among social outcasts, especially drug addicts. This is what is referred to as an economic explanation for aberrant behavior. When the kids do not perceive any possibility of job, even with schooling, the economic situation becomes much worse. "Now, with formal education everywhere, and for practically everyone, the link between schooling and future career is at best not very straightforward, and at worst entirely inexplicable," says a sociologist. Slums in cities and towns are thought to produce the highest proportion of juvenile drug addicts. This is evident in Kenyan cities and towns, especially Nairobi, where slums such as Mathare, Kibera, Mkuru, and Majengo are known to house a huge number of drinkers and drug addicts.
However, according to Kaylo (2017), drug misuse among young people in some geographical locations or from certain socioeconomic backgrounds does not persist. It has an impact on the whole country, both in urban and rural regions. The issue affects people of all social classes. People are impoverished and miserable not just in slums or low-income regions, but even in families that live in better-controlled environments with better-controlled children.
Children from well-to-do homes, who have all they need, use drugs for the sheer joy of it. According to Gatonye (2016), who conducted a research on drug abusers and parental awareness on variables predisposing the young to drug and substance misuse in Nairobi province, addiction develops when substances are used for fun and enjoyment over a lengthy period of time. According to the literature examined in this section, while studies have been conducted to determine the reasons of drug misuse in Kenya, much of the work has been done in urban and pre-urban regions, with little work done in rural areas, particularly Masaba North Sub County. As a result, it is essential to do the research and determine the true reasons, which may be specific to the Sub County.
Reasons For Drug Abuse
Experimental Curiosity:
Adolescents are motivated to take drugs because they are curious about the unknown facts concerning drugs. The first time they take drugs, they feel arousal, such as euphoria and pleasure, which motivates them to continue.
Peer Group Influence:
Peer pressure is a crucial factor in many teenagers' decisions to take drugs.
This is due to the fact that peer pressure is an unavoidable part of adolescent and
adolescent life. They rely more on their peers while they attempt to rely less on their
parents. With Nigeria, like in the rest of the world, one cannot enjoy the company of
people unless one follows their rules.
Lack of parental supervision:
Many parents are unable to watch their children due to a lack of time. Some parents have little or no engagement with their children, while others exert pressure on them to pass examinations or do well in school. These events trigger and intensify drug misuse.
Personality Problems due to socio-Economic Conditions:
Adolescents who have personality issues as a result of their social circumstances have been observed to consume drugs. The majority of Nigerians have a poor social and economic situation. Because poverty is rampant, broken families are common, and unemployment is on the rise, our teenagers walk the streets searching for work or turn to begging. Lack of skills, chances for training and retraining, and a lack of determined commitment to foster job creation by private and community entrepreneurs have exacerbated these issues. Because of the frustration caused by these issues, some turn to substance misuse to relieve the stress and troubles that come with it.
The Need for Energy to Work for Long Hours:
The worsening economic situation, which has resulted in poverty and disempowerment among the people, has prompted many parents to send their children out in search of a way to contribute to the family's income. These youngsters participate in activities such as hawking, bus conduct, head loading, scavenging, and serving in food canteens, among others, and are prone to using drugs in order to obtain more energy to labor for extended periods of time.
Availability of the Drugs:
In many countries, drugs have dropped in prices as supplies have increased.
The Need to prevent the Occurrence of Withdrawal symptoms:
When a person stops using a medication, they suffer "withdrawal symptoms." Symptoms include pain, anxiety, increased perspiration, and shaking. The drug user's inability to handle the effects pushes him to keep going (Okoye, 2015).
Signs And Symptoms Of Drug Abuse
According to Kandel, (2015) the following are signs and symptoms of drug abuse. They are:
Signs of Drug Used and Drug Paraphernalia
i. Possession of drug paraphernalia such pipes, rolling papers, and tiny decongestants
ii. Drugs, unusual plants or bolts, and leaf seeds in ashtrays or clothes pockets are all prohibited.
iii. Drug odors, incense odors, and other masking fragrances
Identification with Drug Culture
i. Drug related magazines, slogans on clothing
ii. Hostility in discussing drugs
Signs of Physical Deterioration
i. Memory lapses, short attention span, difficulty in concentration.
ii. Poor physical coordination, slurred or incoherent speech; unhealthy appearance, indifference to hygiene and grooming
iii. Bloodshot eyes, dilated pupils.
Changes in Behaviour
i. Distinct downward performance in school place of work.
ii. Increased absenteeism or tardiness.
iii. Chronic dishonesty, lying; cheating and stealing.
iv. Trouble with the police and other law enforcement agencies
v. Change of friends, evasiveness in talking about new ones.
Effects Of Drug Abuse
- Alcohol-related problems includes:
- Physical problems e.g liver cirrhosis, pancreatic, peptic ulcer, tuberculosis, hypertension, neurological disorder.
b. Mental retardation for the fetus in the womb, growth, deficiency, delayed motor development.
c. Craniofacial abnormalities, limbs abnormalities and cardiac deficits.
d. Psychiatric e.g pathological drunkenness, suicidal behaviour
e. Socially-broken homes, increased crime rate, sexual offences, homicide and sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Tobacco: Causes stimulation of heart and narrowing of blood vessels, producing
hypertension, headache, loss of appetite, nausea and delayed growth of the fetus. It
also aggravates or causes sinusitis, bronchitis, cancer, strokes, and heart attack.
3. Stimulants: Lethargy, irritability, exaggerated self confidence, damage nose linings,
sleeplessness, and psychiatric complications.
4. Inhalants: Causes anemia, damage kidney and stomach bleeding.
5. Narcotics: Causes poor perception, constipation, cough, suppression, vomiting, drowsiness and sleep, unconsciousness and death.
Concept Of Academic Performance
Without a question, academic performance is the most essential component of education. In this aspect, it is expected that schools would have an influence on kids' learning, socializing, and even occupational preparedness. Despite the emphasis on a broad knowledge of educational objectives, academic accomplishment remains crucial. Students' academic success is a term that comes up often in debates concerning higher education. Academic performance is a multifaceted construct made up of a learner's talents, attitudes, and actions that aid in classroom success (Hijazi & Naqvi, 2016). It is an acceptable and remarkable level of accomplishment as students go through and conclude their educational experience (Tinto, 2016).
The consequences of this notion are shown by research, which demonstrates that the vast majority of students who drop out do so due to low academic performance alone. Although the importance of academic achievement is seldom questioned, reaching an agreement on how to assess it has proven challenging. Policymakers, measurement specialists, and educators are still at odds on how to evaluate children's academic success (Elliot, 2017). Researchers have utilized a variety of methods to evaluate academic success, including report card grades, grade point averages, standardized test scores, teacher evaluations, other cognitive test scores, grade retention, and dropout rates. Student academic performance, on the other hand, is defined in this study as a student's ability to complete a specific class assignment in a school setting.
Causes Of Poor Academic Performance
There are several issues that contribute to pupils' low academic performance. Anxiety, bad self-concept, and sexuality, as well as inadequate study methods, reading approaches, organ limitations, and indiscipline, are among them.
Anxiety:
According to (Johnson,2018), anxiety arises when individuals are at odds with themselves. Conflicting inclinations, needs, and ideals collide to create the underlying conflict. Secondary school students are in their adolescent years, when many of them are confronted for the first time with facts about themselves, particularly their academic achievements. Individuals feel conflict and discontent as a consequence of this, which leads to anxiety and tension in the classroom, reducing their focus and resulting in poor academic performance.
Poor Self-Concept:
Self-concept refers to one's sense of self. It all starts with a person's comprehension of who they are and what they've done. A student's comprehension of himself or herself, as well as the management of his or her conduct, is aided by self concept. Teachers, parents, peers, personal motivation, and a student's gender all have a role in a student's academic self-concept and achievement.
Teachers' approval/disapproval patterns are inextricably tied to pupils' academic self-concepts (Maurin,2016). The more a student's trust in his or her teacher's evaluation of him or her, the better his or her academic achievement, as measured by grades, and vice versa. Study Techniques That Aren't Working A student who is self-aware will have a strong drive or aim for academic achievement. According to Maurin, low academic performance is caused by a lack of organization, laziness, being easily distracted, and a lack of self-confidence (2016). He emphasizes, however, that teacher counselors may motivate students and help them improve their academic standards via academics. To achieve academic success, a student must be taught effective study tactics and testing processes.
Poor Reading Techniques
Many secondary students suffer with academic challenges including poor reading habits, with the majority of them being slow readers who don't comprehend what they're reading. The lack of students to identify the underlying structure and important aspects in previously studied content has been blamed for their poor academic achievement. Many students who have performed poorly have had difficulty focusing. Academic is a wonderful therapy for children who have difficulty reading since it teaches them how to read properly.
Indiscipline:
Indiscipline, defined as a student's act of disorder in violation of the school's established rules, has had a substantial influence on many students' academic performance. Teenagers become indisciplined for two reasons, according to Opare(2015). Both internal and external variables are at play. Internal causes include individual, administrative, and social community elements, while external reasons include addressing the needs of the adolescent. Students get frustrated when their demands are not met, which has a detrimental influence on their academic performance.
Epileptic power supply
When there is no reliable power supply, students get demotivated to read and study, which has a negative impact on their academic performance. Because of the many services that electricity may give in the classroom, the absence of power in schools is sad. Classes may be offered early in the morning or late at night with the right lighting. Access to electricity makes it easier to integrate ICTs like computers and TVs into the classroom.
Drug abuse
Drug abuse is one of the greatest causes of unnecessary mortality, disease, and injury, as well as a threat to international peace. Inhalants, heroine, and cocaine are all commonly utilized drugs (Acolagbe, 2015). Nonetheless, in the context of this study, drug abuse is defined as taking an excessive amount of a single drug or substance, or indiscriminately ingesting drugs that might disrupt the biological functioning and physiological behavior of those who consume them. Although there may be differences in the scale of the issue, Nigeria's substance addiction problem is similar to that of other nations. Similarly, kids and youth involved in drug misuse are often academically and socially underdeveloped, since they are not valued or acknowledged for their ability to contribute to any progress. This is because drug misuse not only impacts pupils' academic performance, but also their moral, physical, and general development in secondary school (Kandel & Chen, 2015). As a consequence of drug use, kids are otherwise disobedient to their professors, parents, and senior pupils both at school and at home.
As a consequence, drug or substance misuse leads to disorder, which is defined as the use of a behavior-altering substance in a maladaptive pattern that produces considerable impairment or suffering. These effects include inability to meet social or occupational commitments, recurring usage in contexts when doing so is physically risky, and legal issues or behavior adjustment (Kandel & Chen, 2015; Acolagbe, 2015).
Because of financial issues and cultural norms prevalent in this age range, drug misuse most often starts in early adolescence (Kandel & Chen,2015). Tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other drugs are used in that order. Secondary school pupils are increasingly abusing prescription medicines, notably opioids for acute pain relief and stimulant pills for disorders such as attention deficit disorder and narcolepsy (Turner, 2008). As a result, teenagers who are expected to be tomorrow's leaders and who are being educated in secondary schools have avoided using narcotics. This behavior has no effect on the pupils' growth, and the predicted output of these students' academic results may suffer as a result of their drug addiction persistence (Turner, 2018). Drug misuse is a big issue in schools, according to the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) (NDLEA, 2017). For example, around 20% of students in Edo State, Nigeria, had used a psychoactive substance at least once in their life (Alemika, 2018).
Factors That Contribute To Pupils Academic Performance
Parents’ Education
The parents of a kid are his or her closest relatives. Parents who are more educated have a better knowledge of their children's educational needs and skills. As a consequence, parents help their children with their early education, which has an influence on their knowledge and competency in their domains. Parents' educational and intellectual backgrounds have a big influence on their children's academic life.
According to Grissmer (2017), parents' educational attainment has the largest influence on their children's academic achievement. Children's academic performance is impacted by their parents' educational status, according to Taiwo (2016). He says that this is because parents would be in a great position to act as second teachers to their children, coaching and counseling them on how to perform well in school and giving them with the necessary tools.
According to Musgrave (2017), children who grow up in an educated family desire to follow in their parents' footsteps and are more involved in their academics as a consequence. According to Jeynes, a child from a well-educated family with a high socioeconomic status is also more likely to succeed than a child from an illiterate family (2017). This, he believes, is due to the perception that children from educated households get a lot of help, such as an acceptable and outstanding environment for academic work, parental support and supervision, appropriate textual and intellectual resources, and adequate nourishment. Children with parents with high educational, occupational, and social standing have a considerably greater probability of getting into top secondary schools and ultimately into the finest colleges and institutions in practically all nations, according to Eamon (2018). In truth, rather than color, ethnicity, or immigrant status, the most important factor impacting children's educational achievement is their parents' education (Considine & Zappala, 2015).
Academic Ambition of the Child
Dembo (2017) was the one who first introduced and stated the need of setting behavior goals. Educators could describe a student's academic drive as their ability to set and attain goals (Dembo, 2017).
Ambition, according to Pettigrove (2007), is the continuous and widespread desire for achievement, attainment, and accomplishment. Ambitions are connected to the pursuit of achievement and the avoidance of failure, according to Dembo , lewin, Festinger, and Sears (2017). In a nutshell, ambition is about attaining rather than accomplishing, however the two terms are often used interchangeably (Maurin, 2016). Many philosophers have debated the virtues of ambition, with those who believe it is noble seeming to outweigh those who believe it is bad (Pettigrove, 2017). Students who establish demanding objectives for themselves are more task-oriented and have a greater feeling of purpose in their life. Students' learning, life preparation, academic motivation, and achievement may all be influenced by academic desire.
Quaglia and Cobb (1996) describe academic ambitions as "a student's aptitude to understand and develop future aims while being motivated to work toward those goals in the present." As a result, ambition denotes the notion that a certain action is important in achieving long-term objectives. It reflects people's convictions that thinking about and preparing for the future is both possible and desirable (Quaglia & Cobb, 2018).
Individual goals are important because they may influence important actions and outcomes, such as educational performance (Goodman & Gregg, 2016). Numerous studies have shown that young people who have greater educational aspirations are more driven and attain higher educational levels than their peers. Without a doubt, the relationship between educational outcomes and academic objectives seems to be complex. As a result, ambition may be both a predictor and a consequence of educational achievement, and it is influenced by self-efficacy, personal qualities, experiences, mediating family factors, and views about ability.
Effort of the Child
Without a doubt, a lot of key components contribute to students' academic performance, the most significant of which is labor (Tella & Tella, 2017). Persistence, also known as effort management or effort control, refers to the continued investment of energy in learning despite obstacles.
According to Carbonaro (2015), school effort refers to the amount of time and effort pupils put in to meet the official academic criteria set out by their teachers and/or school. He identified three types of school effort: rule-oriented effort (showing up and behaving in class), procedural effort (completing assignments on time), and intellectual effort (completing projects on time) (critically thinking about and understanding the curriculum). When students attribute their academic performance to effort/perseverance or get feedback that relates their success to effort, they build stronger self-efficacy and expectations for future skill improvement. Several studies have looked at the influence of effort and tenacity on students' academic achievement while establishing success goals (Opare & Dramanu, 2002). According to studies, effort has a role in determining academic success outcomes. In reality, studies demonstrate that effort is positively associated to academic success (Opare & Dramanu, 2015). Among all general approaches, it is discovered that effort is the only direct predictor of learning outcomes.
Study Habits:
Because a student's grades may be connected to their study habits, their study habits may be helpful in predicting grades. Students who have poor study habits, on the other hand, may get worse grades than those who have outstanding study habits. Study abilities and learning approaches include time management, accessing information resources, taking class notes, engaging with instructors, preparing for and taking examinations, and many more. There is a clear correlation between such learning practices and methodologies and academic achievement in higher education, according to the data. Students who create their own study aids spend more time doing so than students who depend on the study aids of others. It's also likely that, like taking notes, creating study aids supports the learner in learning more meaningful knowledge by combining diverse pieces of information into new knowledge. We wondered whether students who used pre-made study aids instead of generating their own missed out on the benefits of time-on-task and concept mapping.
Maurin (2015) developed a study habits questionnaire for high school and college students. Their study abilities index looked at three characteristics in both homework and test situations. Distractibility items evaluate the extent to which students report being unable to maintain their attention or concentrate on their task. How well students try to grasp the thing they're studying—do they look for essential concepts or deeper meaning—is a good indicator of their inquisitiveness. Compulsiveness questions assess how attentive pupils are to details and how hard they try to remember knowledge.
Learning Skills:
Student behavior and learning, according to current research, are important factors of academic achievement and retention. If we wish to increase students' academic performance in higher education institutions, we need to focus on interventions that target learning mechanisms, according to Harris, et al. (2017), indicating the need for such programs to be implemented. Despite its theoretical importance and widespread coverage in international media, the influence of learning techniques on academic achievement has gotten much less attention.
Greater time spent on learning activities leads to more learning, according to Jere Brophy in 1998, as long as the teacher is competent and the learning activities are well-designed and conducted. Another concept that affected us was concept mapping. A strategy in which the learner relates new knowledge to a framework of previously taught concepts is known as concept mapping. According to Maurin(2015), the connection of new and old knowledge is a critical component of successful learning and the difference between meaningful and rote learning.
Influence Of Drug Use On Students Discipline
Kerochio (2018) claims that many individuals have used drugs at some point in their life. He goes on to say that when a person's drug usage impairs their professional or social functioning, society gets concerned. The user becomes a danger to others in society and begins to participate in illegal activity. According to Emovon (2018), narcotics cause users to suffer irregular mood swings, anxiety, and impulsivity. They result in the user's poor social adjustment, which is defined by situational animosity.
According to Dembo,(2017) in a study conducted in Kenyan schools by the International Commission for the Prevention of Alcoholism and Drug Dependence between 1977 and 1978 indicated that 23.3 percent of pupils drank alcohol and 26% smoked bhang (2017). Drug use causes disciplinary issues, causing kids to miss a lot of class time while being punished or suspended. Drug users are more prone to participate in delinquent activities like fighting and theft. Students that take drugs, according to Bagogun (2016), exhibit unexplainable mood swings, act badly, are argumentative, confused, destructive, concerned about reacting to criticism, act rebellious, and don't seem joyful.
Influence Of Drug Use On Students Interest In Learning
Drug users have a diminished interest in classwork and a bad attitude, leading many to drop out before finishing their education, according to Balogun (2016). Drug users have a lower motivation to complete tasks, as well as a lower capacity to accomplish tasks that need a high level of focus and attention, which interferes with learning. They are uninspired, indifferent, and uninterested in achieving any goals or ambitions. Students who are on drugs are tardy and tired when they arrive at school.
Impacts Of Drug Use On Class Attendance.
Students who use substances during college spend less time studying and miss more classes, reducing their exposure to the classroom learning environment and the beneficial experiences of interacting with faculty and other students. Longitudinal research has found that students who use alcohol and drugs are more likely to have a disrupted college experience and to drop out. Excessive drinking and drug use can have negative academic consequences, which can be exacerbated by mental health issues. Binge drinkers are more likely to miss classes and fall behind in their studies (Wechsler et al, 2015). The number of drinks consumed is positively correlated with the number of missed classes (Alcohol Edu 2018-2019). Absenteeism from disliked classes was linked to the frequency of alcohol consumption.
Impacts Of Drug Abuse On Time Spent Studying.
Alcohol consumption has a negative impact on study hours under all definitions of drinking (binge, frequent binge, drunkenness, and frequent drunkenness). Drinking alcohol more frequently has a greater negative impact on study time, with frequent drunkenness having the greatest impact. Heavy episodic alcohol consumption and time spent on academics are linked..
Relationship Between Drug Abuse And Academic Performance.
Two or more binge drinking sessions in a normal two-week period are associated with considerably worse semester grades (Harriset al 2017). Because the heaviest drinkers get the lowest marks, the likelihood of receiving good grades falls as the frequency of excessive episodic drinking rises. Heavy drinking in college is linked to a lower likelihood of achieving an A average cumulative GPA. Those with a B or above in their grades drank fewer beers every week or month. As a result, when comparing abstainers to heavier drinkers, there is a considerable drop in mean grade. Drugs cause pupils to have a bad attitude toward studying, fail to complete tasks, and have reduced reasoning abilities, all of which have an impact on academic achievement. Drugs can interfere with a student's discipline, resulting in lost learning time as a result of punishment or suspension. Drugs cause pupils to lose interest in studying; they become uninspired, with no goals or ambitions, and no desire to achieve in anything. Students using drugs are late to school and lack enthusiasm, negatively impacting academic performance..
Influence Of Drug Abuse On Academic Performance.
The social environment, according to (Goodman, 2016), has a significant impact on health and social outcomes. Marijuana use and related problems are explained in this article as the result of a complex interaction between the individual and the environment, in which social institutions or structures can influence the environment in ways that influence drug use and related problems. Given that the majority of marijuana use begins during the adolescent stage, particularly for "gateway" drugs such as alcohol and cigarettes, it is critical to address this social problem. Alcohol and cigarettes are referred to as "gateway" drugs because they are frequently used before other drugs are tried (NACADA,2015). Student drug abuse can result in a significant drop in academic performance, an increase in truancy reports, and expulsion from school.
It can also lead to addiction, as well as an increase in drug desire, which disrupts normal life processes and increases appetite and libido. Other vices, such as stealing, fighting, and gambling, may be caused by drug abuse due to a change in the abuser's brain chemistry. Drug tolerance develops when a drug is used repeatedly over a long period of time, a physiological reaction in which the body requires increasingly larger doses to achieve the same effects. Cross-tolerance occurs when a person's tolerance for one drug increases their tolerance for another.
Measures Taken To Curb Drug Abuse
Drug abuse is on the rise among secondary school students, and it may have played a significant role in poor exam performance as well as undermining academic ability and performance. NACADA is an acronym for the National Association of Colleges and Universities (2006). Schools have implemented a variety of policies aimed at reducing drug misuse. They recommended education and control measures to be put in place to get drug-free environments during the Heads of Secondary Schools meeting under the umbrella organization (KSSHA) in Nakuru in 2008.
Guidance and counseling, inviting parents or guardians to school, suspension, harsh punishment, expulsion, invitation of resource person, and drug awareness campaigns are among the most regularly employed strategies in Kenya, according to Maithya (2009). He recommended that this be strengthened in life skills, drug use and abuse as a subject, and organizing seminars and debates within the school, according to the study.
Wamuyu (2004) conducted a study in Starehe district among teachers and students on the measures in place to curb drug and substance abuse in their schools. He discovered that some drug awareness campaigns were conducted in their respective schools, teachers confirmed that guidance and counseling were being used to curb the problem, and teachers reported that punishment was the most common way of dealing with drug cases. For prominent instances, suspension or expulsion is the most common penalty. He also said that there were spontaneous searches in classrooms, dorms, and when students returned to school. A few schools made use of mass media.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Social cognitive learning theory
According to thistheory behavior is determined by the persons thought processes, the environment and attitude.This means that individuals determine their own behavior while being influenced by theenvironmental factors and their own behavior Bandura‟s social cognitive learning theory tendsto focus more on cognitive expectances, vicarious learning and self-regulations as explanatorymechanism of drugs and substance abuser. For example, individuals who believe that alcoholwill make them more attractive, less inhibited, better lovers and more fun to be around, will bemore prone to use alcohol. Bandura (1986) contended that behavior is largely regulated bycognitive factors such as perception of an issue and the pattern within the environment.This theory relevant to this research as it emphasizes the role of observational learningwith regard to the presence and influence of models. The theory claims that role modeling doesnot only affects behaviours but that it also leads to the development of thoughts and emotionsthat shape behavior. Students who get engaged in the behavior of drugs and substance abuse,have most likely learnt the behavior from their environment. These students have decided to getinto the behavior of drugs and substance abuse more often than not out of choice
The modified social stress theory
For understanding drug use and abuse also guidesthis study. The model was developed by Rodes and Jason (1988) and modified by World HealthOrganization/Progamme on Substance Abuse (WHO/PSA) to include the effects of drugs orsubstances, the personal response of the individual to drugs and additional environmental, socialand cultural variables. The theory maintains that there are factors that encourage drug abusecalled risk factors. Factors that make people less likely to abuse drugs are called protective factors. The key to health and healthy families is increasing the protective factors whiledecreasing the risk factors.According to this model, if many risk factors are present in a person‟s life, that person ismore likely to begin, intensify and continue the use of drugs, which could lead to drug abuse.The model identifies risk factors as stress (which could be due to the school or homeenvironment, and adolescent developmental changes) and normalization of substance use whichcould be seen in terms of legality and law enforcement; availability and cost of drugs;advertising, sponsorship and promotion through media, as well as the cultural value attached tovarious drugs. In addition, there is also the experience derived from the use of drugs, whichcould be positive or negative.
Drugs which produce positive effects are likely to be abused.The model also showed that the more protective factors are present, the less likely theperson is to become involved with drugs. Protective factors are identified as: attachments with
people such as family members, peers and institutions such as religion and school. In additionare skills, which refer to physical and performance capabilities that help people succeed in lifeand reduce incidents of drug abuse. Availability of resources, within the person or theenvironment, which help people meet their emotional and physical needs, are said to reducedependence on drugs. Examples include positive role models, religious faith, anti-drugcampaigns plus guidance and counseling services.According to this model, it is easy to understand the drug problem better if both risk andprotective factors are considered at the same time. Probability of drug abuse is determined bythese factors. The framework is useful as a way of planning interventions to prevent or treatproblems related to drug abuse. Once the risk factors are identified, work can begin on reducingthe risks and strengthening the protective factors. Although Rodes and Jason‟s theory could explain why the youth in schools do or do not abuse drugs, it is not exhaustive. In addition to theabove risk and protective factors there could be others which contribute to the present scenario of
drug abuse in families, schools and communities, as suggested in the literature review. Thepresence of risk and protective factors is context dependent and the proportions of theircontribution depend on intensity in given situations. Therefore, the actual state of affairs needsexploration for factors unique to Machakos district in Kenya, where the investigation was carriedout. This model therefore guided the study by way of examining the drug problem in secondaryschools in the district and to analyzing the strategies used to address the problem, but where itproved inadequate other models were taken into account.
Opponent Processes Theory of Emotion by Solomon(1980).
Basically he states that every process that has an affective valence, i.e. is pleasant orunpleasant, is followed by a secondary, "opponent process". This opponent process sets in afterthe primary process is quieted. With repeated exposure, the primary process becomes weakerwhile the opponent process is strengthened. The most important contribution is Solomon'sfindings on work motivation and addictive behavior, though it does not fit the "economist'sstandard model" and how there are growing suspicions that addiction is a much broaderphenomenon than first believed. According to opponent-process theory, drug abuse andaddiction is the result of an emotional pairing of pleasure and the emotional symptoms associatedwith withdrawal. At the beginning of drug or any substance use, there are high levels of pleasureand low levels of withdrawal. Over time, however, as the levels of pleasure from using the drugdecrease, the levels of withdrawal symptoms increase, thus providing motivation to keep usingthe drug despite a lack of pleasure from it The theory was based on a study Solomon conducted in 1974, in which the researcher analyzedthe emotions of skydivers. It was found that beginners have greater levels of fear than moreexperienced skydivers, but less pleasure upon landing. However, as the skydivers kept onjumping, there was an increase in pleasure and a decrease in fear.
A similar experiment was donewith dogs. Dogs were put into a so-called Pavlov harness and were shocked with electricity for10 seconds. This shock was the stimulus of the experiment. In the initial stage (consisting of thefirst few stimuli) the dogs experienced terror and panic. Then, when they stopped the stimuli, thedogs became stealthy and cautious. The experiment continued, and after many stimuli, the dogswent from unhappy to joyful and happy after the shocks stopped altogether (Solomon 1978). Inthe opponent-process model, this is the result of a shift over time from fear to pleasure in thefear-pleasure emotion pair. Beyond addictive behavior, opponent-process theory can in principleexplain why processes (i.e. situations or subjective states) that are aversive and unpleasant canstill be rewarding. For instance, after being exposed to a stressful situation (cold pressor test),human participants showed greater physiological signs of well-being than those in the controlcondition.Accordingly, opponent-process theory can also help to explain psycho-pathologicalbehavior such as non-suicidal self-injury. The theories are related to this work because theyprovide foundational explanation as regards to how emotion and behaviour can lead to certainbehaviours in humans, most especially student
2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDY
Oshiokoya ,et l (2006) conducted a study titled “Drug use amongsecondary school children in Central Delta State, Nigeria”. The study was a survey studyamong a total of 124 secondary schools with a population of 81,000 students. Sixteen schoolswere randomly selected to participate in the study. The sample population for study comprisedmale and female students from 16 secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria, and 640 studentsparticipated. The research design used for the study was a survey design. A well-structuredquestionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection, the reliability of the instrument wastested using a test-retest method. The questionnaire was administered in each of the 16 secondaryschools and was collected immediately to enhance the rate of returns. Frequency distributionswere used to calculate the percentage of responses for each question. Using the Pearson Productmoment correlation, the coefficient of reliability was found to be 0.72. This value indicated the reliability of the instrument. The results revealed that there was no significant difference betweenstudents of high and low academic performance in terms of their drug use. Fifty percent (50%) ofstudents with a high academic rating regularly took alcohol, Indian hemp and kola nuts,compared with 54 per cent of low academic performance peers The past study is relevant to the present study in the sense that it was conducted onsecondary school students. The findings focused on the students‟ academic performances. Thestudy also employed the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC) to find thecorrelation differences between drug abuse and students‟ behaviour, which was the intent of thispresent study to make use of Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC). Thestudy employed questionnaire as an instrument for collecting data and the present studyemployed the use of questionnaire as an instrument for data collection.
Another study was carried out by Afolayan JA, Afolayan JM (2010) titled; A Study of some Causative Factors of Substance Abuse among Selected Secondary School Students in Ibadan,Nigeria. The researcher used descriptive survey method for the study. The sample of the study comprised four hundred and eighty students (480) selected through multi-stage sampling from secondary school students in Ibadan. A self-designed Adolescent Drug Habit Inventory was used to collect data for the study. Three null hypotheses were raised and Chi-square statistic was usedto test the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The results of study showed that therewas a significant difference in the involvement of junior and senior students in substance abuse,but there was no significant difference in the causes of abuse. The findings also showed that causes of substance abuse were numerous which included family neglect by parents to house helps, influence by peers This study is of immense benefit to the present study in that it was carried out to investigate substance abuse among secondary school students, which is the same age bracket that the present study wants to investigate. Although this study employed Chi-Square statistics, the present research study did not use the same statistical package to test the null hypotheses. The instrument that was used in gathering the data was adolescent drug habit inventory, but the present study used questionnaire in gathering the necessary data. Furthermore, the former study was looked at causative factors of substance, while the present study looked at effects of these causative factors of substance abuse on secondary students. Despite the differences, the present study has benefited from the literature reviewed as it was not only restricted to the causative factors of substance abuse amongst secondary school students.
Another study was carried out by Kiiru(2004) titled the Social and Academic Implications of Drug Abuse among Undergraduates: A Case Study of the Obafemi AwolowoUniversity, Ile-Ife. Nigeria.The population consisted of 1400 the undergraduate students of theObafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, for the 2009 academic session. The sample comprised180 undergraduates of the University. Of the sample, 140 were males, and 40 females. Thesubjects were randomly selected. The instrument was a validated – teacher-made test, comprisinga 35-item supply-response test. The questionnaire was designed to gather data on the area ofconcern to the study – academic and social pursuits. The sampling technique employed indrawing the sample from the population was stratified random sampling. The data collected werepresented in tables and subjected to chi-square statistic. The findings indicated poor socialadjustment on the part of the user characterized by elevated by situational hostility, low level ofacademic adjustment and that most substances abused by students were marijuana, cigarettes cough syrups, locally made gin, beer, kola-nuts and cocaine but the later was not widely abusedunlike the other ones.
The present study is related to the past study in that it was conducted on students and itwas out to establish the emotional and academic effects of drugs on students. Also the studyemployed the use of questionnaire as the data gathering instrument which this present studyintends to employ. The study covered a wider student population and the findings can begeneralized to other Universities in the country as they have similar characteristics, but themagnitude of drug abuse among students varied from region to region.