CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS OF TRUANCY AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ENUGU NORTH

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Truancy is the serious problem in Tanzania especially in cities. According to the Basic Education Statistics report of 2009/10 released by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training recently, Form Two has the highest number of student drop outs which stands at 9,627. The report also indicates that the main reasons that prompt students to drop out of school is truancy 36.2 %. The report shows that drop outs due to truancy decreased from 68.7 % in 2008 to 36.2 % in the following year. However, the situation has been attributed to truancy, the tendency, which diminishes student’s performance.

Education can be defined as the transmission of the values and accumulation of knowledge of a society; it is designed to guide students in learning a culture, molding behavior in the ways of adulthood, and directing them toward eventual role in society. Education is there to help people become useful members of the society, should also help them to develop an appreciation of their cultural heritage and live more satisfying lives.

A study titled causes and impacts of truancy among primary school pupils in Tanzania conducted in 2002 reveals that parents are child’s first and perhaps most important teachers as they teach their children attitudes, habits and values that help to shape their character and remain with them throughout their life, but few parents have neither time nor ability to teach their children everything they need to know. They turn over to many educators; thus, it is too difficult to afford life without education since education is the foundation of human life, (Restuta Shirima 2002) however truancy is the big problem hindering academic performance among secondary school students.

The term knowledge refers to the information, understanding and skills that you gain through education or experience. (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 6th ed)

The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institutes of technology. (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

Education attainment is an important determinant of ones better life in all aspects, if some missed education he or she can not think further than what he or she just sees, mostly people with no education have got few chances or opportunities of getting job keeping in mind the level of unemployment is increasing year after year. Also a person with no education lives in isolation where he or she isolates himself or herself because she or he can not match with today’s world , developments, for example developments in communication where people are communicating through e-mails, Skype, all these requires one to have some sort of education. If you want to compete for a post in government leadership you should be educated at least be a degree holder for higher posts like Member of Parliament.

A 1990 study by Obondo and Dhadphale reported that about 10 % of school non attendance by children in Kenya was due to truancy. Ollay studied 169 street youths in Ibadan, Nigeria and about 47% of these had a history of truancy. These studies suggest an association between truancy and being on the streets as well as that truancy is an important contributor of non- attendance at school.

According to Rozumah Bahamdin (2003), movement of students from one class to another class provides some of the students the opportunity not to go to the class and these movements from one class to another class make them dare to play truant.

Truancy has been labeled one of the top ten major problems in this country’s schools, negatively affecting the future of the youth. In fact, absentee rates have reached as high as 30 percent in some cities. In New York City, about 150,000 out of 1,000,000 students are absent daily. The Los Angels Unified School District reports that 10 percent of its students are absent each day. (Azizi Yahya et al 2010) Tanzania’s state education system is under performing and excludes a range of children, primarily those who are poor, those from difficulty family backgrounds, and those who have special education needs. Children in such circumstances are particularly at risk of non enrolment, exclusion, truancy and dropping out from school. According to the Basic Education Statistics report of 2009/10 released by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training recently, Form Two has the highest number of student drop outs which stands at 9,627. The report also indicates that the main reasons that prompt students to drop out of school is truancy (36.2 per cent) followed by pregnancies (20.4 per cent).

school is an agent of socialization as well as institution set up by the society in order to pass knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and other necessary qualities to the younger generations so that they become productive and leaders of tomorrow. Mahuta, (2007) was of view that a school is regarded as a centre of knowledge and it possesses the power to mould and shape the character of individuals in the society. Therefore, it is clear that school is a backbone and life wire of a society. In our schools, teaching and learning take place effectively when there is proper attendance on the part of both staff and students. However, present day students do engage in absenting themselves from school without concrete and reasonable reasons. Therefore, truancy become one of the problem seriously affecting teaching and learning, general performance and quality of our secondary school students as well as the quality of the education generally in developing nations like Nigeria. Even though teachers, school administrators, government and community are trying their best in order tackle truancy but it still persists in our schools.

Problems affecting students’ academic performance in Nigeria include absenteeism and truancy. These are behaviours that students exhibited that deviate from the social norms of the school. It has caused serious problems to the smooth running of the school system, the progress of the students and also the overall education programme. There are a lot of effects of truancy and absenteeism on a child and society in general. Absenteeism and truancy may lead a child to become hardened criminal in future life, if not curbed (Abayomi, 2002). When a child tends to get involved in acts such as running away from school, he may not have time to concentrate on his/her studies, whereby having negative impact on the academic performance of such a child. This will make such a child neglect his intended goals and if this happens, such a child will not be able to concentrate on his/her education and his/her career will come into a stand still. In a situation where a child is always playing the truancy, such a child will be missing a lot of lessons and definitely will not know anything being taught by the teacher. As a result, such a child will never achieve any goal in his/her education and career.

Precisely, this chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Empirical Review

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Truancy

The word truancy means “Run away from classes” and the students who always tend to keep themselves away from studies and avoid attending classes are called truants (Gosain 2013). In another vein, Stoll, (2002) in Chukwuka, (2013) defines truancy as “absence from school for no legitimate reason”. Nwana, (2004) in Adekunle, (2015) added that truancy involves intentionally absenting of oneself from school without permission, leaving without authorization and dodging of specific lesson periods. Therefore, it is clear that in a situation where a student absent himself from school without any concrete reason and the parents are not aware about it can be regarded as truancy.

The term truancy has been conceptualized by different authors in different ways. According to the International Dictionary of Education (2002), truancy is defined as a “deliberate absence from school without parental knowledge”. In the same manner, the New Western Comprehensive Dictionary Special Price Edition (2004), said that truancy is “when a students stays away without permission, anyone who absent himself from work or duty without good reasons, the knowledge of the authority”. The above definitions are in agreement that truancy occurs when a student absents himself from school without due permission either from parents or from the related authorities. On its popular meaning, Carter (2000) considers truancy as a: deliberate absence from school on the part of the pupil without the knowledge and consent of parents; absence of the pupil from the school for which no reasonable or acceptable excuse is given, this latter concept broadens the definition considerably and makes it synonymous with unexcused absence.

Similarly Adeyemo (1999), defines truancy as a delinquent act which occurs when “a child often stays away from the school without good reasons”. These definitions indicated certain elements of truancy that must be stressed and in order to have a proper understanding of the concept. Carter’s definition carries the implication that the reason for absence is invalid from the view points of parents and school authorities and not from that of the truant.

There are three types of truancy which are as follows:

• Habitual Truancy
• Occasional Truancy
• Casual Truancy

1. Habitual Truancy

Habitual truancy is the type of truancy that occurs when a student truant constantly and continually absent from school without the due knowledge or consent of his parents and school authorities. Habitual truants are mainly those students who miss numerous full days of school academic activities. It is important to note that students who are habitual truants have high chances of falling behind in their school work, decline in their academic performance and even lose their attachment or positive attitudes towards schools, Ezeani (2006).

1. Occasional truancy

Occasional truancy occurs when a student does not constantly and continually absent himself from school. In this type of truancy, the students level of absenteeism from school without the permission of parents or school authority is irregular.

1. Causal truancy

Causal truancy occurs when the students absence from school is by chance. This type of truancy or unexcused absence from school is not regular and constant but happens by chance. For instance students who remained lurking within sound of the school bell, so that they could attend those lessons, which interested them, Ezeani(2006).

Education is the process of learning to live as a useful and acceptable member of the community and a good citizen (Ferranti, 1993). The school has been established as the agent of the society to mould the habits, interest, attitudes and feelings of children and transmit the societal norms, culture, values and traditions from one generation to another. The school as an institution is a place of learning morality and inculcate discipline to the students. Despite this, some students still do not attend classes. Students’ absence from school for unexcused reasons is referred to as truancy.

However, the situation in our secondary schools regarding the issue of absenteeism and truancy is pathetic. Absenteeism and truancy are presently major problems facing our schools, and the damaging effects to students’ academic performances have largely been overlooked. Adeyemo (1998) sees a truant as “A child who often stays away from school without any good reason. Absenteeism is regular persistent absence from work or school while truancy is an act of or practice of deliberately staying away from school without any acceptance reason, whether or not the parents or guardians know and approve of it (Fugleman & Richardson, 2001). A truant is a child that does not go to school thereby diverting to somewhere else or wandering around (Sayeler, 1997). A truant leaves home but does not reach school, he escapes from school or class to engage in any other activities that catch up the school but at home, those neither in the school nor at home, and those who absent themselves from classes as a result of the difficulty in the school subjects or dislike for the subject or teacher (Owodunni, 1996). Stoll (1993) submitted that factors responsible for pupils’ truancy are many and varied. Lansdown (1990) viewed hat there is no point in seeking single factor explanation for a complex phenomenon like truancy. Factors influencing truancy fall into four broad categories; child/ personality, family, school, and society/ community (Rohrman, 1993; Kinder, Harland, Wilkin & Wakefield, 1995). Osarenren (1996) also discussed the causes of truancy among school children under factors resident in the home, school environment, peer-group, culture, and society. In the same vein, Gesinde (2005) has also identified the contributory role of government in truancy behaviour among school children. Lack of interest in education of children varies and this depends on the child. If a child is not interested in education and in such a situation, a child who is not interested in education if forced to do would always show truancy and absenteeism he/she would not go to school always as expected, many other things that can also influence the interest of a child in education. A pupil may be ill or sick and may be kept at home in good faith until the child is well and be able to move about freely without any problem (Harrison, 1994). his imaginations (Gabb, 1997). Gullatt and Lemoine (1997) also opined that truancy is avoidance behaviour towards school as a result of the existence of other reinforcing activities outside the school, other than the home. Rothman (2001) opined that “truancy is an act of staying away from school without leave”. Truancy is a problem

because the absent students cannot benefit from the various programmes that the school offers. Effects of truancy include lower academic achievements (Baker & Jansen, 2000) and criminal activities (Garry, 2001). Truancy and absenteeism are signs of maladjustment that require psychologically treatment (Green, 2001). It is an act of indiscipline and this has been causing misunderstanding among adolescence, teachers, parents and in the society (Abayomi, 2002). Truants increase their risk for dropping out of school and high school dropouts are more likely to be unemployed or end up in prison than students who graduate from high school or college. There are four categories of truants; students being in school but absent in class, students neither in classroom nor in the school but at home, those neither in the school nor at home, and those who absent themselves from classes as a result of the difficulty in the school subjects or dislike for the subject or teacher (Owodunni, 1996). Stoll (1993) submitted that factors responsible for pupils’ truancy are many and varied. Lansdown (1990) viewed that there is no point in seeking single factor explanation for a complex phenomenon like truancy. Factors influencing truancy fall into four broad categories; child/ personality, family, school, and society/ community (Rohrman, 1993; Kinder, Harland, Wilkin & Wakefield, 1995). Osarenren (1996) also discussed the causes of truancy among school children under factors resident in the home, school environment, peer-group, culture, and society. In the same vein, Gesinde (2005) has also identified the contributory role of government in truancy behaviour among school children. Lack of interest in education of children varies and this depends on the child. If a child is not interested in education and in such a situation, a child who is not interested in education if forced to do would always show truancy and absenteeism he/she would not go to school always as expected, many other things that can also influence the interest of a child in education. A pupil may be ill or sick and may be kept at home in good faith until the child is well and be able to move about freely without any problem (Harrison,1994).

Causes of Truancy

Generally, it is obvious that truancy is a problem that has many causative agents and homes of the students is regarded as one. The home of the child seriously contributes to his engagement in truancy. For instance, in a home where there is poverty, lack of concern on the child’s education, child abuse, alcohol abuse and other improper ways of child upbringing can easily make him indulge in truancy. Hopskins, Green and Burns, (2011), Maduabuchi, (2013), van Breda, (2014) and Musa, (2014) were of the opinion that lack of parental guidance, poverty, drug and alcohol abuse, lack of family support, domestic problems, broken homes, family commitments including care duties in the home are some of the factors that make children engage in truant behavior. Adedipe (1998) in Musa, (2014) opined that children who are not adequately monitored by their parents may show a variety of unhealthy symptoms in behaviours. Adebisi (1996) in Musa, (2014) opines that broken homes is a factor that causes truancy and absenteeism in children because in most broken home there is no proper care for the child. Some causes of truancy among students really come from the students themselves. For instance, low level of intelligence, peer influences; weak physical health, social and emotional as well as maladjustment do make students engage in truancy. Raid, (2006), Hopskins, Green and Burns, (2011), Maduabuchi, (2013) and Mangal, (2013) in Gosain, (2013) were of the opinion that children’s need to catch up on homework or assessment tasks, illness, lack of social competence, mental health difficulties and physical health, lack of self esteem, social skills and confidence; poor peer relations, lack of academic ability are some of the causes of truancy mainly coming from the student themselves. Omoegun (1995) in Musa, (2014) was of the view that a child would rather prefer to spend most of his days in the midst of his peers where he would be happier and more relaxed and this gives room for undue peer influence particularly in antisocial behaviours like truancy. The school is expected to provide conducive atmosphere for proper learning and teaching as well as serving as a place to be loved by the students. However, in some situations school assists in making students to engage in truancy. For instance, in a situation where a school is having teachers who are harsh to students, where there is high level of bullying, un-conducive school environment, boredom, poor management, poor relations with teachers and in some cases irrelevance of the curriculum, then there must be high tendency of truancy from the students. Raid, (2006), Hopskins, Green and Burns, (2011), Chukwuka, (2013) and Mangal, (2013) in Gosain, (2013) were of the view that harsh teachers, negative school experiences such as bullying, boring and boredom classes, un-conducive school environment, indiscipline prevalent in the school, lack of interesting and co-curricular activities are some of causes of truancy among students that come from the school itself. Therefore, it is clear that the causes of truancy among students are many and varied. So attributing it to single cause is not possible. In relation to that Stoll, (1993), Rohrman, (1993), Gesinde, (2005) and Maduabuchi, (2013) were of the view that the causes of truancy are many and varied, and can come from the child, home (family), school, society and government at large.

Stoll (1993) submitted that factors responsible for truancy are many and varied. Lands down (1990) is of the opinion that there is no point in seeking single factor explanation for a complex phenomenon like truancy. In the same vein Rohrman (1993) posited that factors influencing truancy fall into four broad categories namely: child /personality, family, school, society/community. Osanrelre (1996) also discussed the causes of truancy under factors resident in the school, home, peer group and society. In addition to all these factors Gesinde (2005) has also identified the contributory role of the government in truancy behaviour among school children.

Study carried out by the United States office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) identified four factors as the correlates of truancy. These include family factors, school factors, economic influences and student's variables. According to the above study family factors include lack of guidance or parental supervision, domestic violence, poverty, drug or alcohol abuse in the home and indifference on the part of parent /guardians towards their wards education. In a family where some or all the above mentioned conditions prevail such a home can not by any means detect when a child becomes a truant. Children from such homes have a field day doing whatever pleases them with their education. In families/homes where the reverse is the case children cannot indulge in truancy without the parents/guardians detecting their change in behaviour towards school attendance and nip it in the bud. On the side of the school climate issues such as school size, attitude of teachers to students, relationship among students especially tile senior ones to the junior ones and the administrative structure of the school. Some school administrators are non-challant to the welfare of their students by reneging in their obligations to the students. According to Omoegun (1995) one of the major functions of the school is the provision of care and guidance. This includes the provision of conducive learning environment and other learning facilities and other conveniences.

Adana (1987) is of the view that fear of punishment scolding, bullying, ridicule and shame of setbacks from examination failure are among the factors that can keep students away from school. As earlier pointed out, student's variable like drug and alcohol abuse, lack of social competence, mental health difficulties and physical health can lead student^ to engage in truancy.

The community environment contributes in some ways to push students into truancy. This is because economic conditional and differing culturally based attitude toward the education of children are also important.

Categorized Causes of Truancy

Peer Group Factor and Truancy

Though, many scholars (Rothman, 2001; Galloway, 1985; Gabb, 1997; Oerlemans & Jenkins, 1998) have blamed the child for truancy behaviour, the peer influence had been identified as a major factor influencing a child’s truancy behaviour. According to Omoegun (1995), a child would rather prefer to spend most of his days in the midst of his peers where he would be happier and more relaxed. And this gives room for undue peer influence particularly in antisocial behaviours like truancy. Owodunni (1996) opined that it is easier for student to yield to the pressure from their colleagues than to obey the teacher and the school authority. Rohrman (1993) opined that peers have an invaluable and influential role to play in providing both the support and context necessary for the learning of new skills and that they act as reinforcing agents of socialization. In a study conducted by Osarenren (1996) reported that regardless of whether children’s attitudes and conducts were approved by parents or other adults, adolescents attempt to model his behaviour according to what represents the standard of his peer group. Adebisi, (1996) gives a critical analytical influence of peer group as a strong factor that causes truancy and absenteeism. The type of friends a student keeps plays an important role. For example student from well behave homes may become truant or absence from school as a result of mixing with bad students who are not discipline at home.

Absenteeism and Truancy on Students’ Academic Performance

There are different views on the possible effects of truancy and absenteeism on students’ academic performance in our schools. Oyebanji (1997) agreed that any child who stays away from school will miss so many lessons that he will as a result fall behind other children in the class. She also stressed that the impact on each individual concerned and their academic performance should be viewed as a very serious matter of concerned to parents.`Truancy and absenteeism can lead to frustration in the sense that when a child repeats a class for more than two or three years, he will get tired and become frustrated.

Owen (2001) says that truancy and absenteeism may lead a child into drug addiction, and in most cases student that absent from school, his or her Intelligent Quotient (IQ) would be going retarded and such students would score below average in his class work because he missed all the normal school lessons and all the academic school training which he is suppose to have acquired. He would also associate with bad group that push him anyhow. Anything they do he will also do without having any second thought over it and this will eventually lure him/her into criminal activities such as stealing, smoking, cultism, narcotics etc. all these will increase his confidence in his bad behaviour which eventually have bad impact on his academic success, his brain will be affected and his way of thinking will all be in negative form.

Home Factor and Truancy

The home is a powerful determinant factor in the behaviour of children. Adedipe (1998) opined that children who are not adequately monitored by their parents may show a variety of unhealthy symptoms in behaviours. Adebisi (1996) opines broken homes as a factor that causes truancy and absenteeism in children because in most broken home there is no proper care for the child. Eisenbory (1998) views truancy as the fear of being away from parents.

These delinquent youths ran away from home, and pose threats to the future development of a nation. According to Erickson and Curl (1996), some of the parents show no interest in their children development in terms of academic support and others. Therefore in most cases a child turn truant because parent do not show any interest in their academic performance at a particular stage such a child may be easily lure into truancy. School age children and teens who are unsupervised during the hours of school are far more likely to use alcohol, drugs and tobacco, engage in acts of criminality and other high risk behaviours, receive poor grades, and drop from school than those children who have the opportunity to benefit in constructive activities and supervised by responsible parents and adults (Harrison, 1994).

Incidences Of Truancy

Truancy refers to any international unauthorized or illegal absence from compulsory schooling. It describes absence from school caused by students of their own free will and does not refer to excused absence from school. There are four main categories of truancy as discussed below.

Students being in school but absent in class, students neither in school nor in the classroom but at home, students who keep away from the class as a result of the difficulty in school subject of dislike for the subject teachers and those neither at home nor hi the classroom. Owodummi (1996).

Under category one some students may leave their homes for school, but on getting to school they will not enter the classroom to receive lessons .They intentionally absent themselves from lesson being taught there for no just .cause. They will keep on hibernate around the school premises until school over. Such students do not do assignments talkless of copying notes.

The next category involves those who find it difficult to leave their homes for school for flimsy and unfounded reasons. At times they may fake sickness, at other times they may say that one demand or the other is being made from them by the school authorities and of which failure to meet the demands they school keep away from school. In families of working class parents the students may pretend as if they are preparing for school until their parents or guardians leave for work and then they relax. When the parents/guardians return from work they will claim to have attended school for the day if asked.

Some students will leave their homes in the morning for school and only end up finding their way to unknown and undisclosed destinations. They will continue to deceive their parent/guardians for a long time before their tricks are exposed.

The fourth category are those students who absent themselves from classes as a result of difficulty in the school subjects or their dislike for the subject or the teacher. These categories of truants are rampant in our schools today both at primary and secondary levels. The situation can definitely not make for functional education for values, skills, knowledge and national development. Truancy is a global phenomenon as it obtains in different part of the world to the extent that some countries have legislations against it and courts where truancy cases are handed.

Truancy as a Disciplinary Problem in Secondary School

In every human society, there are norms and values which are socially and morally accepted ways of doing things within a societal set-up. But in a situation where a person’s behaviour contradicts the accepted societal ways of doing things then such a person is regarded as a law breakers, a deviant or delinquent.

In Akwa Ibom State, truancy as a delinquent act is commonly indulged in by both adults and young people. Just as some able bodied adults who are gainfully employed roam about the streets and absent themselves from work for no genuine reason so also do some school children roam about the street thus absenting themselves from school or classes regularly without concrete reasons or permission from the related school authorities. However, the problem of truancy is the most common among the youths and this is regarded as a child lacking “discipline”.

Discipline as a concept is very important in the practice of education. A learner who lacks self-discipline cannot learn effectively. Discipline in the words Adesina (1998) is referred to as when students are taught to respect the school authorities, to observe the school laws, regulations and to maintain an established standard of behaviour. Uka (2003) sees discipline in modern classroom management as the provision of a suitable environment for pupils to develop self-control, orderliness, good conduct, co-operation and the habit of getting the best out of themselves during and after school life. More so, both the English Reader’s Dictionary (2002) and the Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary (2004) concurred that discipline is the training especially of the mind and character to produce self-control, habit of obedience. However, a child who lacks discipline is regarded as being indiscipline. Indiscipline is one of the serious social problems facing Nigerian schools in general and Akwa Ibom State in particular and the aspect of indiscipline that is of greatest concern in the present day school students is truancy.

At the National Conference on Discipline and Motivation in Schools held in 1999, Abia pointed out the following factors as causes of indiscipline in Nigerian schools, the home, prevailing situation in the society, the school physical facilities, teachers and school administrators, peer group, security agents, ineffective teaching,

authoritarian methods of administration and policy makers. As regards the above causes of indiscipline, parents are required to speak seriously to their wards on the effects of indiscipline especially truancy and lateness.

In the words of Ehimmora(2001), he stressed that truancy is an age-old aspect of indiscipline which brings the school authority into disrepute and in addition, the unofficial coming and going of children at other times other than normal school day, naturally brings about indiscipline and interrupts normal school routine. Truancy as a disciplinary problem cannot be left unchecked because of the likely effect it could have on the future truants. Healy(2006) states rightly that truancy is the kindergarten of crime. If a school child finds that he can avoid going to school without any serious repercussion, he will sooner or latter believe that he can succeed in other offence. His idleness while playing truancy will set the scene for other crime such as stealing of money and goods. For the problem of truancy as an indiscipline act in schools to be solved, all the related institutions that are involved in child upbringing such as the family, church and the school must play active roles.

Peer Group Influence and Academic Performance

The peer group and classmates have effects on the students truant behaviours. As the child frees himself from dependence and control of the parents and other adults, he falls back on peer group for direction and control. According to Ogbebor(1992), members of peer group do put inside their personal feeling and follow the dictates of peer in order to remain in group. Due to this strong feelings and attachment, peer group has generally been viewed as the vehicle through which students learn truant act. In his speech, Okorodudu(1993) said that a boy or a girl can easily mess up a dozen of others of his friends in the school. To him, when a child who is a very good boy or girl enters the secondary school at the formative age of between ten and fourteen years, when such a child must have been in the school for two to three terms, you start wondering whether it is still your ward. This to him is because he will turn out to be a completely changed child. Igbo (1999) state that the need for a student to conform and be like his peers may bring the student into conflict with his own family. This sensitive young persons is anxious to please his beloved ones and to maintain prestige in the eyes of his own generation. This often lead the students into the act of abandoning everything he is supposed to be doing like attending classes and begin to work from place to place in search of where he will get money to be like his peer groups. When this happens, the student will never understand what is going on in the class because he is always absent from school, and as a result performs below average academically. Truancy is detrimental to students achievement, promotion, graduation, self-esteem and employment potential. Clearly, students who miss school fall behind their peers in the classroom.

Parents Socio-Economic Status and Academic Performance

Odebunmi (1990) defined socio-economic background as the social and economic positon of an individual or a family in any given society, determined by such factors as level of education, occupation and income. Interms of socio-economic background, students from low socio-economic background, students from low socio-economic background may likely face financial challenges in school.

According to Ibia (2006) children from high socio-economic background are usually prepared for school, they are encouraged to wake at early, or are woken up and prepared for school whereas students from low socio-economic background are often engaged by their mother to fetch water, cook meals, hawk akara early in the morning before going to school. Parents from low socio-economic background hardly encouraged their children to attend school. Constant late coming to school is bound to have an adverse effect on academic achievement of students from low socio-economic background, and have fewer or no academic materials like the basic science textbooks, and their parent’s involvement in their education is low, their supervision is lesser and their expectation of the child is lower. Metcalf (2003) opined that students from low income backgrounds are likely to be disadvantaged educationally by their need to engage in paid employment. Danesy and Okediran(2002) lamented that street hawking among students have psychologically imposed other problems like sex networking behaviour, juvenile delinquent behaviour which takes much of the student time off school that necessitated the poor academic performance and drop out syndrome. Once they are engaging in commercial activities the opportunity cost will be forgoing their regular classes, playing truant since the two cannot be enjoyed concurrently. Students facing financial challenges in school may likely play truant. Ikechukwu (2000) opines that a student can also leave school even though he/she is intellectually capable but because his/her parents cannot afford to pay his/her fees, buy the necessary basic science textbooks or school uniforms.

Akpochafo and Okorodudu (1993) pointed out that lack of basic science exercise books, pens, reading books to work with, makes pupils to run away from the school; he would not like to be punished by the teacher and as such he runs away from the school. It may be said that the economic status of the parents may contribute to truancy. If the parents are unable to provide the students with the basic school needs, they may be forced to go out of the school to look for such needs.

Self-Concept and Academic Performance

Self-concept, is the perception each person has of himself or herself, is a component of personality development. According to Igbo (1999) self concept is the set of knowledge and attitudes that we have about ourselves; the perceptions that the individual assigns to himself and characteristics or attributes that we use to describe ourselves. It is understood to be fundamentally a descriptive assessment and has a cognitive nuance. Self concept has to do with social competence, since it influence how the person feels, how he or she thinks, learns, values himself or herself, relates to others, and ultimately, how he or she believes. Self-concept is a person’s point of view. Its his way of looking at something.

According to Goddard (1999) refusal to go to school is a common problem in adolescents. The truant is usually hostile, aggressive adolescent who resent authority and dislikes school or home or both. His aggression stems from his basic insecurity and is frequently aggravated by unhappy experiences in school. Parental friction and dissension, strict and severe discipline, lack of affection and attention, and constent nagging to do better in school work are the usual bases of the adolescents insecure feelings and hostile states. In most instances truancy is an in diction of hostility directed toward authority. The teenager feels resentful towards his parents because of unreasonable and unfair treatment and transfers this attitude to the authority figures in school. He shows his defense by refusing to go to school or attend certain classes. His attitude of indifference and his negative behaviour are reactions to his feelings of rejection. The truant feels that his parents and other adult have little regards or sympathy for him, and as a result he manifests ego defenses of truants who are poor students and who have achieved little success in their academic work.

Odebunmi (1990) compared high self-concept with low self concept of students, teachers reports showed that they consider the high self-concept of students as more popular, cooperative, persistent in class work, with lower anxiety levels, more supportive families and higher expectations of future success. Basic science students with high self concept perform higher than basic science students with low or negative self concept academically. Since total self concept predicts academic performance, students with low or negative self concept develop hatred for their parents, peers and rebel against the school authority by exhibiting truant behaviour. Consequently, this negativistic attitude will affect their academic performance in school.

Teacher’s Personality and Academic Performance

Adodo (2007) argued that one key overriding factor for the success of students academic achievement is the teacher. In the same vein, Ibrahim (2000) believed that teacher’s qualifications and exposure can go along way to bring about pupils high academic achievement. It is probably for this reason, Ibukun (2009) asserted that no education system can rise above the quality of its teacher’s. Considering the assertions of Ibrahim (2000), Adodo (2007), and Ibukun (2009), it implies that teacher’s role in the preparation of students to succeed in examination cannot be undermined. Ademulegun (2001) argued that students taught by more qualified and experience teachers in terms of knowledge of the subject matter performed better than those taught by less qualified but experience teachers.

The educational analysis recently carried out in Nigeria by the National Economic Empowerment and development strategy (needs, 2005) indicated that more than forty nine percent (49%) of the teachers in Nigeria are unqualified. This revealed the quality of teachers teaching various school subjects to the secondary school students. The teachers teaching basic science as a subject in the various secondary schools would probably be among the said over forty nine percent (49%) unqualified teachers. Students acquires from the teachers disposition to form attitude towards learning which could positively or negatively affect his performance. Teachers are role models to the students. It is very unfortunate that little did many teachers realize that the manner they handled the teaching of basic science as a subject, behave and interact with the students as basic science teachers could produce major effect on student’s achievement. For instance, when teachers frequently absent themselves from the classroom, such negative attitude can cause the students at the foundation laying to lose interest in science as the delivery of the subject matter handled by such teacher has to be done by an array of substituted teachers who may not be a specialist.

Consequences/Effects of Truancy

Truancy has many negative and adverse effects on the truants and the society at large. It has been clearly identified as one of the early warning signs that the youth is heading for potential delinquent activity, social isolation and educational failure. Several studies have established lack of commitment to school as a risk factor for substance abuse, delinquency teenage pregnancy and dropping out of school. Bell, Rosen and Dynlacht (1994) have shown that decades of research have identified a link between truancy and later problems in life such as violent crimes, marital problems, adult criminality and incarceration.

Truancy has social and financial impact on the truant youths. Academically they make low grades and achieve little educationally. They usually drop out of school resulting in high dropout rates which is inimical to functional education for values knowledge, skills and national development. Other negative consequences of dropping out of school occasioned by truancy include little employment prospects, lower salaries if employed, but often times not employed or under employed. Truant school dropouts are more likely to depend on their parents' or relatives' good will for survival.

Other consequences of truancy and dropout are less educated work force as youths who are the future leaders become uneducated as a result of truancy and dropping out of school. This will obviously have adverse effect on the nation's workforce and hence low productivity.

This will as well increase unemployment and the illiteracy level of the nation. In a situation whereby educational institution of different levels turn out graduates of different cadres annually and push them into the labour market what chances have the truants/dropouts. The above situation will adversely effect the nation's development since employment and literacy levels are among the indices for determining national development. From the foregoing, it could be established that truancy as social vice has numerous negative effects on both the truants and society. On the part of the truants the act makes them school dropouts, uneducated unemployable, security risks and replete with anti-social behaviours. The society on the other hand is not better for it as the truants/school dropouts make no meaningful contribution to the growth and progress of the society. They engage in numerous anti-social behaviours such as smoking, illicit sex, alcoholism, armed robbery, kidnapping and even social interest especially as they are vulnerable to manipulation by the elites especially politicians and evil minded numbers of the society to satisfy their insatiable quest for power and wealth.

Measures to Curb Truancy

Having discussed the incidences of truancy, the factors responsible for truancy among students and their effects on the truant students and the society at large it will be pertinent to examine palliative measures to curb the obnoxious practice or reduce it to the barest minimum. As earlier pointed out many factors such as the student's factor, the home, school, the peer group and the community/government contribute in one way or the other to the prevalence of truancy among our secondary students. Consequent upon the above each of the mentioned agents has significant roles to play towards the curbing of this social menace.

Students should give a deep thought to the consequences of truancy on themselves and the entire society their families inclusive. Senior students should be humane in their dealings with their younger ones in the school. This is because the type of treatment meted to the junior ones may push them into truancy, they should avoid bulling the younger ones as much as possible because once the younger and junior ones develop a feeling of insecurity in the school they will develop apathy to school attendance and remaining in their classes.

The home should play its expected roles in this regard. Parents should show active interest in the welfare of their children and wards. They should always monitor the behaviour of their children so as to detect when they derail in their duties especially schooling.

The school owes it as a duty to provide conducive learning environment for students. They should ensure the availability of qualified and dedicated staff, conducive classroom environment and teaching and learning materials. The school guidance counsellors have a lot to do in this regard because the counselling services they provide will go a long way in helping students out of this situation. They should provide different group counselling situations that can encourage youths to examine and analyze the damagers inherent in truancy.

The society through the agency of the government should make the school environment as attractive for teaching and learning as possible. This could be achieved through the provision of the needed manpower and materials necessary for making the atmosphere of the school appealing to the students. Anything to the contrary will be counter productive and hence result in students developing cold feet to school attendance and remaining in school.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

This theory was propounded by Psychologist Frederick Herzberg and his associates in 1959. It derives its theoretical base from the educational administration theory that is relevant to this work. It is Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation. Herzberg’s two factor theory examines the relationship between satisfaction and productivity. According to peretomode, Herzberg and his research associates used a critical incidents procedure (semi-structure interview), asked their respondents to recall a time when each felt exceptionally good or bad about his or her job, and then to describe the events associated with these feelings. The result of the analysis of accumulated data brought about two kinds of factor the satisfiers and dissatisfiers.

Those factors related to positive feelings about the job itself encourage the growth and the development needs of the people at the work place. As cited in peretomode (1991). Herzberg identified six and motivational factors namely: achievement, the work recognition for achievement, the work itself, responsibility, advancement (promotion) and the possibility of personal growth. That is when these motivational factors are present in a school situation they lead to strong motivation, satisfaction and good performance.

Those factors that are related to dissatisfaction are called hygiene factors and are related to the context (environment) of the job. These factors include; school policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relations with superiors, peers and subordinates, working condition, fees, personal life, status and security. According to Ejiogu (1985), Herzberg observed that an improvement in the hygiene factors would serve to remove the impediments to positive attitudes towards work and school. Therefore, motivation motivates students for greater performance. Motivation of students is one way to reduce truancy among students. A motivated students has adult characteristics. He is independent, maintains good relationship with his/her teachers and peers, develops a strong and longer interest in school, high attendance rate, consistency in school activities and effective participation in curricula and extra curricula activities. But a student without motivation is forced to act like a child, frustrated, dependence syndrome with erratic, casual or shallow interest Ejiogu (1985). A student without motivation fines the school boring, and he/she is likely to develop negative attitude towards school such as lateness, bullying, stealing, lack of respect for constituted authorities and poor academic performance.

Reinforcement Theory

This theory was propounded by psychologist B.F.Skinners of Harvard in1953. Skinners and his associates do far more than praise good performance. They analyzed the work situation to determine what causes workers to act the way they do, and then they initiate changes to eliminate troublesome areas and obstructions to performance. Reinforcement theory is another widely discussed process theory of motivation. Reinforcement theory considers the use of positive or negative reinforcers to motivate or create an environment of motivation. This theory of motivation is not concerned with needs or why people make choices instead it is concerned with the environment and it consequences for the person. That is behaviour is considered to be environmentally caused. For example, suppose Michael Akpan, a hardworking student is given textbooks and scholarship for doing great in his studies and school activities. In the future, Michael Akpan first works hard, his behaviour was reinforced by textbooks and scholarship. This reinforcement is an environmental consequence of good performance. In the case of truancy among students, once the school management considers a certain student for reinforcement he/she will work hard to be rewarded next time, and remain in school. It can be through promotion upgrading or encouragement.

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Oluremi(2013) conducted a study titled “truancy and academic performance of secondary school students in southwestern Nigeria: implication for counseling”. The study identified the relationship between truancy and academic performance of secondary school students in southwestern Nigeria. It also examined the relationship between school physical environment and truancy behaviour among students. It also investigated the deference between male and female manifestation of truancy behaviour.

Stratified sampling technique was used to select 360 sample size from four secondary schools in four out of six states in southwestern Nigeria. Three research instruments were used for this study namely: academic records of students, attendance registers and school environment questionnaire (SEQ), four hypotheses were raised and tested using chi-square and t- test analysis. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between truancy and academic performance of students, there was not a significant relationship between the school physical environment and truancy behaviour among students; there was a significant difference between male and female manifestation of truancy behaviour. The study concluded that truancy hindered effective learning and could lead to poor academic performance. The relationship that exists between the study and the present study is that the result of the present study showed that there is a significant difference between truancy and students academic performance.

Jamwal (2012) conducted a study titled “Truant Behaviour in Relation to self concept”. Sample of the study was consisted 1000 of truant (500) and non-truant (500) of high school students. A technique of stratified random sampling was employed to select the sample. Seven (7) hypotheses was developed and the t-test technique was used analyzing the hypotheses at a significant level of confidence of 0.05. The findings revealed that the non-truant high school students exhibit significantly higher level of self concept on its social, moral and total self concept dimension in comparison to truant high school students. Truant and non-truant high school students exhibit more or less similar level of self concept on its physical, temperamental, educational and intellectual dimensions.

The relationship that exists between the study and the present study is that the results of the present study showed that there is a significant difference between student self concept and truant behaviour. Students with low self concept tend to dislikes school, home or both, and as a result developed truant behaviour and poor academic performance while students with high self concept tend to be consistent in school attendance and cooperation with school authority and as a result perform successfully in their academics.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several authors and scholars on the availability and utilization of school library resources. The works of scholars who conducted theoretical and empirical studies have been reviewed also. The chapter has made clear the concept, types, causes and Incidences Of Truancy. the consequences/effects of truancy, truancy as a disciplinary problem in secondary school and measures to curb truancy were also reviewed.