CAUSES OF STUDENT'S DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING BASIC SCIENCE IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERARURE

This chapter reviews literature related to the study. It is organized under the following sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Concept of Basic science
• Importance of Basic science Curriculum for National Development
• History of the introduction of computer in the primary and secondary schools
• problems of basic science in schools
• Theoretical Framework
• Social Learning Theory
• Constructivist theory
• Review of Related Empirical Studies
• Factors that Impede the Learning of Basic science in Secondary Schools
• Summary of Literature Reviewed

Conceptual Framework

Importance of Basic science Curriculum for National Development

Basic science is of paramount importance to national development and it is on this premise that the Federal government of Nigeria sought to introduce basic science in the education system from primary through to secondary schools. Education systems around the world face formidable challenges that are taxing conventional strategies. Fresh approaches are needed to address persistent problems of the past and provide students with an education appropriate to the needs of a modern, information based-global economy. Now, after more than two decades of unfulfilled promises to revolutionize education, computer and communication technologies are finally able to offer opportunities to significantly improve teaching and learning.

In any educational system, the level of available resources places a restriction on the degree to which any new subject can be introduced into the school curriculum, especially where only the most basic facilities have so far been provided. But ICT is of such importance to the future industrial and commercial health of a country that investment in the equipment, teacher education, and support services necessary for the effective delivery of an ICT-based curriculum should rank high in any set of government priorities. The curriculum proposed takes account of these resource issues and specifies minimum requirements for effective delivery in different circumstances (UNESCO, 2012). Reasonable basic science are yet to start in Nigerian secondary schools, the computer-student ratio is small, funding by government has not been encouraging, computer education syllabus is unpopular among students and parents and thus hardly implemented, and teachers are inadequate to implement computer education (Jegede & Owolabi, 2013). Teachers in Nigerian secondary schools cannot implement computer education because majority of the teachers are not competent in basic computer operation and in the use of simple application software (Yusuf, 2015). Teachers require access to information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure for a number of reasons. These include their need to live as citizens in a world undergoing rapid and major transformations as a result of increased use of ICT, their need to embed ICT use in their teaching and administrative duties and, increasingly, their need to use ICT in their professional studies (Burnip, 2013).

History of the Introduction of Computer in the primary and secondary schools.

During the late 1970’s, Spain began its political transaction from a dictatorialregime to demoacray one. In the 1980s, the country evolved economically and socially in a process that was speeded up by its in cooperation into the European Union. the early 1990s witnessed Spain’sentrance into internal arena, culminating with the successful of organization of the Olympic Games in 1992.

During these effervescent years, transformations in almost every facet of the country’s make-up also effected the educational field. in this evolving situation, microcomputers arose and were incorporated into the educational space. At the end of 1970s, the present as the primary and secondary education levels was practically non existent. During the 1980s, an intense governmental effort took place to massively introduce computers in primary and secondary schools during institutional plans and policies. The results were uneven, and greatest benefit was possible observed in the use of computer to manage schools, an aspect that experience great development but was not equaled by the use computer to introduce new educational methodologies.

Problems of basic science in schools

Voloy( 2014), noted some of the problems that work against the study of computer in schools, such as inadequate power supply, poor teachers competence in computer, lack of qualified teachers, lack of Computerfacilities, improper selection of teaching techniques or methods. Other problems are:

lack of or Improper Choice of Instructional Materials, organizational constraint, financial constraints etc.

Theoretical Framework

Social Learning Theory

Newman and Newman (2012) say “the concept of social learning evolved from the awareness that much learning takes place as a result of observation and imitation of other people’s behaviour. Newman and Newman (2012) weighed in and say that social learning theory assumes that a great deal of learning goes on through observation but that much of it is not observed in behaviour unless the reinforcement conditions are conducive. Social learning theories also brought about the idea of vicarious reinforcement – good behaviour is rewarded while bad behaviour is punished.

Rathus (2015), a behaviourist, argues that learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that arises from practice or experience. Behaviourist learning theories emphasize that learning takes place when certain environmental conditions occur, apparently independent of any conscious human involvement as in operant conditioning by Skinner B. F and in classical conditioning by Pavlov. Learning is therefore an interactive process involving the learner and the teacher within a specific learning environment.

Taylor and MacKenney (2013) say “learning includes not only acquiring the subject matter but also acquiring habits, attitudes, perceptions, preferences, interests, and social skills of many types”. In addition Taylor and MacKenney (2013) writes that in the classroom, the activities and experiences that lead to change in performance involve the following: observing, demonstrations, experimenting, interacting with pupils and guests and learning individually. Jarvis (2015) says Vygotsky conceived learning as taking place between a learner and a more advanced peer or an adult instructor. This clearly depicts that the idea of interaction is also echoed and emphasized by Vygotsky, a cognitive psychologist. Vygotsky conceived knowledge as existing initially on an intermental plane (i.e. between two people) and only then on an intramental plane (i.e. in the mind of the individual). Influenced by Vygotsky’s works, Jarvis (2015) says that the difference between what a child can understand on its own and what it can potentially understand through interaction with others is called zone of proximal development (ZPD).

According to Jarvis (2015), Piaget believed that the limiting factor in what a child could learn at any time was its stage of development while Vygotsky believed that the crucial factor was the availability of other ‘experts’ who could instruct the child. Vygotsky emphasized instruction from others on how to do things in order for the child to achieve its potential. Piaget’s views have motivated the researcher to want to know whether or not the stage of development of the learners is not militating against effective learning. Taylor and Mackenney (2013) concluded that learning is a change in performance through conditions of activity, practice and experience.

Taylor and Mackenney (2013) writes that learning is “relatively permanent change in potential behaviour that result from experience, provided that changes are not the result of fatigue, maturation, drugs, disease or physical injury. In agreement, Dececco and Grawford (2014) say learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioural tendency and is the result of reinforced practice. The relatively permanent change in behaviour connotes a change in performance. One can easily observe performance but cannot observe learning. One rather infers that learning has occurred when one can do something, which he/she could not do before. In basic science learning can be said to have taken place, for instance, when students are able to implement the concepts of inheritance and polymorphism in computer programming using Visual Basic. The students would be able to solve problems using computing techniques as required by the syllabus. There is no consensus about one definition for learning but there is consensus about the attributes of learning.

Constructivist theory

Constructivism is basically a theory based on observation and scientific study about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure he/ she understands the students preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to adress them and then build on them.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become “expert learners.” This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn.

Review of Related Empirical Studies

Factors that Impede the Effective Learning of Basic science in Secondary Schools

Bukaliya (2012), carried out a study in Zimbabwe Open University to examine the factors militating against the introduction of computer education in secondary schools in Chegutu district, Zimbabwe. The study adopted the descriptive survey design for it was concerned with the gathering of people`s perceptions on the factors hindering the implementation of computer education. The population for the study was made up of 30 secondary schools. Out of these 30 schools, only 20 made it into the sample which was chosen through stratified random sampling. Data were gathered through the use of questionnaires and interviews. The use of these two instruments enabled data triangulation thus enhancing data validity and reliability. Major findings of the study reveal that there were no budgets for computer procurement in the majority of schools. Funds were inadequate for computer procurement as central government and the SDCs did not avail finances for computer procurement. However, stakeholders were willing to contribute towards the purchase of computers for computer education. Results also show that there were no teachers qualified to teach computers in schools. Those teachers who offered the subject were not willing to teach the subject mostly likely due to shortages in equipment and the unavailability of in-service computer training programmes. Inadequate power supply to keep the computer on whenever the need arises,lack of instructional materials like the computer and projector were also seen some of the impediments to the learning of computer. On a positive note, heads of schools and students had a positive attitude towards computer education. Bukaliya (2012) recommended that SDCs should source for computers from organisations such as banks. Schools through the SDCs should charge levies for computer education and government should make it compulsory for schools to offer computer education through policy statements. Teacher training institutions should incorporate computer education into their curriculum. Teachers should be offered administrative and technical support through in-service training programmes. Lastly, communities should be sensitized on the importance of computer education to inculcate in them a paradigm shift.

Summary of Literature Reviews

Computer literacy is the knowledge and ability to use computers and related technology efficiently, with a range of skills covering levels from elementary use to programming and advance problem solving. In common discourse, however, wikipadia the free encycllopadia added that computer literacy often connects little more than the ability to use several very specific application usually Microsoft word, Microsoft Excel, windows, computer appreciation, Microsoft publisher, Microsoft internet Explorer, and Microsoft out look. Hall (2014), added ability of uses the software and the hardware of a computer.

Bukaliya (2012) observed that there were no teachers qualified to teach basic science in schools. Those teachers who offered the subject were not willing to teach the subject mostly likely due to shortages in equipment and the unavailability of in-service computer training programmes.

From these reviews, it is apparent that a number of factors impede the learning of Basic science in secondary schools. There has been several researches in the past as it concerns impeding factors to the effective learning of basic science in different areas of Nigeria, but none has been conducted in Enugu South Local Government Area of Enugu State. It is on this background that the researcher decided to examine some of the notable factors that impede the effective learning of Basic science in junior secondary schools in Enugu South Local Government Area of Enugu State.