COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN THE PERFORMANCE OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS STUDENTS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in two sub-headings:
Conceptual Framework
Theoretical Framework
Chapter Summary
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Academic Performance
In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance, or how well a student meets standards set out by local government and the institution itself. Academic performance according to the Cambridge Dictionary of English (1995) refers to how well a school, college, university, an individual or a group is able to perform when given a learning task, activity or one’s achievement in standardized tests in academic pursuit. Academic performance refers to how students deal with their studies and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their teacher. Academic performance is related to content and intellect, meaning that academic performance depends on the learner’s competence. Cary, Roseth, David and Roger (2008) define academic achievement/success as: Performance on task with measures including comprehension, quality and accuracy of answers of tests, quality and accuracy of problem solving, frequency and quantity of desired outcome, time or rate to solution, time on task, level reasoning and critical thinking, creativity, recall and retention, and transfer of tasks. (p. 29).
Academic achievement refers to a successful accomplishment or performance in a particular subject area and is indicated by grades, marks and scores of descriptive commentaries. Academic performance also refers to how students deal with their studies and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their teachers in a fixed time or academic year (Dimbisso, 2009). (Ferla, Martin and Yonghong 2009) use the notion of academic self-concept referring to individuals' knowledge and perceptions about themselves in academic achievements, and convictions that they can successfully perform a given academic tasks at designated levels.
They further stated that academic self-concept represents a more past-oriented, aggregated and relatively stable judgment about one's self-perceived ability in a particular academic domain; while academic self-efficacy represents a context specific and relatively future oriented judgment about one's confidence for successfully performing an upcoming subject-specific academic task. Good (1973) as cited in Dimbisso (2009) stated that achievement encompasses actual accomplishment of the students‟ of potential ability. Kobaland and Musek (2001, p. 9) stated that: there are two broad groups of definitions of academic achievement. The first one could be considered more objective, because it refers to numerical scores of a student’s knowledge, which measure the degree of a student’s adaptation to school work and to the educational system. The second group is a more subjective one, as its determination of academic success is reliant upon the student’s attitudes towards his academic achievement and himself, as well as by the attitudes of significant others towards his/her success and him/herself.
The concept of low academic performance varies in its definition. Diaz (2003) considers low academic performance or academic failure as the situation in which the subject does not attain the expected achievement according to his or her abilities, resulting in an altered personality which affects all other aspects of life. Similarly, Tapia (2002) as cited in Diaz (2003) notes that while the current educational system perceives that the student fails if he or she does not pass, more appropriate for determining academic failure is whether the student performs below his or her potential. Aremu (2000) defines poor academic performance as performance that is adjudged by the examinee / testee and some other significance as falling below an expected standard.
The interpretation of this expected or desired standard is better appreciated from the perpetual cognitive ability of the evaluator of the performance. The evaluator or assessor can therefore give different interpretations depending on some factors. Bakare (1994) as cited in Asikhia (2010) described poor academic performance as any performance that falls below a desired standard. The criteria of excellence can be from 40 to 100 depending on the subjective yardstick of the evaluator or assessor. For example, a 70 per cent performance of Third Year Senior High students and in Junior High English Language examination is by all standards a very good performance. However, a cursory look at the performance and the individual examined and the standard of the examination he or she took could reveal that the performance was a very poor one. This shows that the concept of poor academic performance is very relative and this depends on so many intervening variables.
Schools’ Facilities And Students’ Performance
The Schools’ facilities have been observed as important factors to quantitative education. The importance of teaching and learning to the provision of adequate instructional facilities for education cannot be over-emphasized. The dictum that “teaching is inseparable from learning but learning is not separable from teaching” is that, teachers do the teaching to make the students learn, but students can learn without the teachers. According to Akande (1985), learning can occur through one’s interaction with one’s environment. The environment here refers to facilities that are available to facilitate students’ learning outcome. It includes books, audio-visual, software and hardware of educational technology, so also size of classroom, sitting position and arrangement, availability of tables, chairs, chalkboards, shelves on which instruments for practical’s are arranged (Farrant, 1991 and Farombi, 1998).
According to Oni, 1992, facilities constitute a strategic factor in organizational functioning. This is so because they determine to a very large extent the smooth functioning of any social organization or system including education. He further stated that their availability, adequacy and relevance influence efficiency and high productivity. In his words, Farobi 1998, opined that the wealth of a nation or society could determine the quality of education in that land, emphasizing that a society that is wealthy will establish good schools with quality teachers, learning infrastructures that with such, students may learn with ease thus bringing about good academic performance. Ajayi and Ogunyemi (1990) reiterated that when facilities are provided to meet relative needs of a school system. Students will not only have access to the reference materials mentioned by the teachers, but individual students will also learn at their own paces. The net effect of this is increased overall academic performance of their entire students.
In his study on resource concentration, utilization and management as correlates of students learning outcomes in Oyo State, Farombi (1998) found that the classroom learning environment in some schools were poor. He cited examples of schools without chalkboard, absence of ceiling, some roofing sheets not in place, windows and doors removed among others, a situation which the researcher regarded as hazardous to healthy living of the learners. According to Nigerian Tribune on Thursday 25 November 1999, in caption; Mass Failure will continue until..... “the Chairman of the National Committee of WAEC, Dr. U.B Ahmed opined that the classroom is the origin of failure ....” a close look at the public schools and what goes on there shows that nothing good can come out of most schools as they do not have facilities, adequate and appropriate human resources to prepare candidates for WASCE.
The above statement indicates that the problems of candidates’ mass failure in WAEC’s organized examination will continue until the situation of the nation’s public schools change for the better. Writing on how to improve secondary education in developing countries, World Bank Publication (1990), citing Mwamwenda and Mwamwenda (1987) linked performance of students to the provision of adequate facilities while referring to a survey of 51 students in secondary schools in Botswana that students performed significantly better on academic tests when they had adequate classrooms, desks and books. Earlier, Fagbamiye (1979) attesting to why students’ performance standard fall, observed 559 cases from 13 secondary schools in Lagos State using age, type of school (Day or Boarding, mixed or single sex), teachers qualification and teaching experience as well as intake quality using students’ entrance examination achievement. His findings revealed that secondary schools which are equipped had good records of achievement and attracted more students. He concluded that good quality schools in terms of facilities and younger students’ intake perform better in WASCE.
Commenting on why high academic attainment is not in trend in Nigeria, Adesina (1981) identified poor and inadequate physical facilities, obsolete teaching light on school facilities and moral guiding provision, Fabunmi (1997) asserted that school facilities when provided will aid teaching learning programme and consequently improve academic performance of students while the models guiding their provision to schools could take any form as rational bureaucratic and or political model, whichever model is adopted, according to him there is always a common feature different allocation of facilities to schools. In his words, Ojoawo (1990), however, noted that certain schools are favoured in the allocation of facilities at the expense of others. Writing on poor performance of students in public examinations, London (1993) stated that in many developing nations, certain physical facilities are none existent, and that those instances where amenities are available man are of substandard quality. What is even more alarming is the correlation, which these observers claim to exist between quality of facilities and academic performance. Lamenting on the glowing inadequacies of school facilities in our educational industry, Akinkugbe (1994) opined that everywhere you look, primary, secondary, special, technical, tertiary, there is abundant evidence of crippling inertia, criminal neglect and a pervasive decay in values and standard.
Other scholars (Wilcocksonn 1994, Lawai 1995, Ajayi 1996, Suleiman 1996) have variously identified the significance of facilities in teaching learning spheres. We can say that absence or poor (and or deteriorating) quality of educational facilities can affect academic performance. Gamoran (1992), however, holding a contrary view noted that facilities.... teachers’ salaries, books in the library and the presence of science laboratory, had little impact on variation in student achievement once student background variables had been taken into account.
This statement connotes that before such student could perform well in higher educational level, he must have been groomed or cushioned by availability of resources in his elementary days upon which he now uses as spring board. According to Hallak (1990), facilities form one of the potent factors that contribute to academic achievement in the school system. They include the school buildings, classroom, accommodation, laboratories, libraries, furniture, recreational equipment, apparatus and other instructional materials. He went further to say that their availability, relevance and adequacy contribute to academic achievement. He however, quickly added that unattractive school building and overcrowded classroom among others contribute to poor academic attainment. Describing where these facilities should be located, he ascribed that educational facilities should be located in appropriate places, while the needs of the users should be put into consideration. In another development, Aliyu (1993) as cited by Johnson (1998) found that there was no significant difference between students in secondary schools with and without adequate instructional facilities. However, he submitted that instructional facilities were indispensable to academic achievement of students in English Language, Mathematics, Biology and Geography while students could perform well in other subject without adequacy of sophisticated instructional materials. He concluded in a comparative study on correlate of school extrinsic variables with students’ academic attainment in science using a target population of 182 secondary schools with 20 schools randomly chosen to represent each of the three science subjects; Physics, Chemistry and Biology in Bendel State. Arubayi (1987) found a positive relationship between the independent variables of laboratory facilities; recommended textbooks, number of science book in the library and teachers’ qualifications and the dependent variable, the academic achievement of students in Physics, Chemistry and Biology. From the various facts highlighted above, attempt will be made to identify the contributions of some elements that constitute these facilities and their impact on academic achievement of students. They are; Libraries, Textbooks, School Buildings, Laboratories.
Teachers’ Qualification and Students’ Performance
Olayemi (2001) observed that the depreciation that has endangered both public/private secondary schools as a result of the relevance of teachers’ qualification with the subject(s) taught. The secondary school students learn more from teachers who hold a Bachelor Degree in Education or NCE with the wealth of experience in teaching the methodology of a professional teacher is quite different in the field of academics. Ogunniyi (1982) cited by Bolarinwa says that the use of continuous assessment is to obtain information about the state of the development of the learner and to help grow by providing him with suitable facilities and opportunities that make him demonstrate from time to time, the knowledge understanding , attitudes, and skills acquired as a result of exposure to various experiences. The studies also suggest that students learn more from experiences than they do from less experienced ones. Professional development of high quality enhances students.
The roles of teachers are very important in teaching; for instance, in schools where there are formal teaching methods, the teachers are the source of all the knowledge that the children acquire in the class. He is able to determine how well the students learning and knows the most effective way of providing assistance.
Good course content and technology enhance student’ learning (Mayer etal, 2000). Researchers have found out that greater gains in student’s achievement occur in classes with few students than in the large classes (Kinger 1998). Class size reduction allows for individualized attention. Small classes also enhance safely, discipline and order. Reduction in class size does not however guarantee quality if qualified teachers and appropriate classroom buildings are not available to cater for the expansion in the number of classrooms. According to sears (1978) the building furniture and equipment contribute remarkably to the intellectual growth of the learners more especially, the instructional strategies are often influenced by the quality and quantity of the school facilities. When students are overcrowded in a terrible condition, this will have a disruption of the student’s mental activities and situation that generally initiatives against effective teaching and intellectual growth of the leaners more especially, the instructional strategies are often influenced by the quality and quantity of the facilities. When students are overcrowded in a terrible condition, this will have disruption of the student’s mental activities and situation that generally initiates against effective teaching and intellectual development of the students. Furthermore, for effective teaching, well-equipped Library and subject norms are needed but the truth is that majority of Nigerian secondary schools today lack these essential facilities.
In most of Nigerian secondary schools, classroom accommodation is grossly inadequate as a result of the large enrolment in the schools; the classrooms are usually overcrowded with up to eighty or more students receiving instructions in a classroom designed for only thirty to forty students. In most cases, the chairs and desks are not enough, in some schools students up while some sit on bare floor to learn. The studies also suggest that students learn more from experienced teachers than they do from less experienced one. Teachers’ Professional development enhances high quality of students’ performance. Whilaker (1995) was of the opinion that teachers are important factor in creating positive learning environment. He further stressed that as professional they know that teaching is more than simply passing information. Many teachers are aware of the need of engaging in the ‘search for more life-enhancing and effective processes. Teachers’ interest in initiating life enhancing learning activities and qualities than those associated with their initial training as teachers. Teachers need new knowledge, skills and qualities in to cope with the complete process of classroom management and organization. Onabamiro (1997) was of the opinion that some teachers in our secondary schools lack mastery of their subject and thereby cannot communicate effectively while some are too rigid in their teaching methods.
In term of consistency and role modeling some teachers do not practice what they preach, for instance, a teacher who frequently comes late to the class, talks tactlessly smokes freely in the school premises, dress shabbily, indulges in moral laxity, absents him/herself without reasonable excuses, exhibits insubordination to the principal and fellow staff is not likely to be taken seriously by the students when he teaches in the class and therefore such teachers’ teaching is not likely to have a positive impact on the term of learning.
A researcher conducted by Brestford entitled, the influence of classroom interactions on students, was aimed at having a greater knowledge of how mutual interactions between teachers and the students could affect students’ attitudes and the learning outcome. A group of students were selected as the research sample from various high schools in British locality. The interaction that occurred between the teachers and the students were observed.
Teachers can explain and justify to the various purposes of various teaching device they employ. They can give clear guidance to students on what it means to work hard. He opines that where students are involved in a two-way discussion on the progress they make via classroom discussions, they develop the ability of thinking and talking about their problems in which cases the teacher can provide necessary help resulting in better learning outcomes.
He also recommends target setting as a way of promoting dialogue between teachers and students and also among students. Since an ongoing dialogue between teachers and student using a shared language of teaching and learning means a culture in which students are trained to ask for help on how to improve their work. Where there is a culture of asking for help in classes as well as feedback and discussion about how well they are learning, student can therefore conclude that classroom interaction has a positive impact since they reflect upon the work they do, can get adequate feedback on how well they are doing academically, make meaningful contribution to the reporting of their own achievement and can also ask their teachers how to improve their work.
Furthermore, effective classroom interaction could improve student who are free to learn and can perform better in the class. Also there are those who are shy in class and use the best teaching method to improve them academically for better performance.
Finally, the effective classroom interaction will help students to cover the syllabus since they can easily walk to teacher or fellow classmate to explain an area of study that is not clear. The spirit of irrational fear will become less thereby leading to higher academic performance.
In another research carried out by Onyinyechi in 2005, the teacher and student interaction in the classroom was studied with focus on verbal interaction. The research work is entitled, the level of teacher and student interactions and its implications on student’s performance. The researcher concludes that the level of teacher’s qualification and experience tends to communicate easily and better thereby enhancing the performance of students.
Onyinyechi recommends that a teacher should give room for question and answers during classes since the study of English Language as a second language course cannot be taught without proper clarification and proper understanding. Teachers should always use various teaching methods as deemed appropriate. They should also communicate and help students personally discover new techniques of problem solving.
Schools’ Environment and Students’ Performance
Scholars have observed the fact that, students’ performance is an output of educational system which cannot be examined in isolation of the inputs and process. Therefore, IBRD/World Bank (1999) asserted that good quality of education requires efficient systems that would provide supportive learning environment motivated staff with mastery of their subject matter adequate access to resources, and students who are healthy and ready to learn. In the same vein, ObanyaOkpala (1984) submitted that, it is only a combination of quality inputs and quality processes that can produces quality outcomes. Concerted efforts have been made at investigating trends of students’ performance in English Language as well as factors responsible for the level of their performance. equipment and instructional materials for effective teaching (Akpan, 1987 and Odogwu, 1994),use of traditional chalk and talk methods (Oshibodu,1988,Edwards &Knight, 1994),large pupils to teachers’ ratio (Alele-Willliams,1988 )limited background preparation in English Language, lack of English Language teaching equipment and materials, fright and anxiety, low level of interest and some government policy (Abimbade, 1995), problems of poor reading abilities, self-concept and performance motivation (Akinsola, 1994). Good physical and mental health of students is essential if they are to fully participate in education activities being offered; if they are to concentrate and learn while in school. Physical activity fuels the brain with oxygen enhances learning and school performance. Physical activity enhances connections between nerves and assists in memory. Children who participate in daily activity have shown superior academic performance and better attitude towards school (Dwyer, Blizzard and Dean,1996). This means that, schools with effective health services have better chances of achieving high academic excellence in their Studies. School counseling services serve a vital role in maximizing students’ performance. Effective counseling services are important to the school climate and a crucial improving students ’performance (American school Counselor Association, ASCA 2008).A lot of studies have revealed a close link between school counseling and students’ academic performance. For instance,(House and Martin 1998 and Lee and Wartz 1998) discovered that, school- counseling service through the counselors has great effect on academic performance of students. School leadership is one of the school-based quality factors that have to be reckoned with in students ‘performance. Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organized group towards goal setting goal performance.it is the ability to get things done with the assistance of other people in the institution (Adesina, 1980).it is a mechanism for directive coordination,which leads to goal performance in an organization (Atanda and Lameed, 2006). A cursory examination of the literature on school effectiveness reveals that while there are some differences of approach, he active leadership of the principal is regarded as essential to school improvement in general and the most essential ingredient of educational reform (Purkey and Smith, 1980).To be regarded as effective,the principal being the educational leader must ensure that other effective factors are put in place. (Obadara, 2005) discovered that transformational and transactional leadership styles contributed significantly to academic performance of secondary school students (R=0.712, P<0.05) and (R=0.0799 P=0.05), respectively.
Supervision is a quality assurance mechanism regarded as effective, the principals being the educational leader in the schools. This could be carried out within the school by the head of department, Vice principal or the principal. The Ministry of Education also supervision is critical for the effective teaching and learning processes.it is one of the factors that influence student’s performance in schools (Pansiri and Dambe, 2005). It means that instructional supervision is meant to improve instructions and learning outcome. Atanda (2002) also found positive relationship between supervision of instruction and school quality (r=0.766), he also confirmed that supervision in both private and secondary schools does not differ.
The place of instructional materials facilitating teaching and learning has been a major concern of researchers in recent time. Apparently because of this concern, different researches have been carried out on the effective use of researchers like Abimbade (1979) and Lasisi (2004) agreed that no matter the method or strategies chosen to be affective, there is need to make use of appropriate materials in facilitating learning.
Studies have established significant difference between library and students’ academic performance. For instance, Keith (2004) in his study found that the size of a library media programme as indicated by the size of its staff and collection is the best school predictor or academic performance of students. In addition, the instructional role of the library media specialist shapes the collection and in turn academic performance. Finally, the degree of collaboration between library media specialist and classroom teacher is affected by the ratio of teachers to pupils. In a related study, Waldman (2003) discovered that students visit library for different purpose. This purpose therefore will have strong influence on their performance. In one of his research, 33% to sleep, 30% to socialize, 24% to use the library’s electronic resources, 22% to check the books out and 21% to e-mail or chat. He concluded, that, even though some of these areas overlap (research and use of electronic researches, for example)and students could pick more than an option, it is clear that these students are mostly using the library as a place, not to make use of the library resources or services.
From fore going, the empirical studies have establish that there are a number of factors found within the school which could influence students’ background that the study investigated the influence of school-based quality factors (school leadership, quality of instruction, school library, and supervision of material and sports facilities) on students’ academic performance in Senior Secondary Schools Certificate Examination in Nigeria with special reference to English Language.
Home Background Students’ Performance
The type of home a child comes from affects the learning behavior of the child in terms of the acceptances of the values by which the home is adapted to. A home in which positive are not encouraged, love is not given and affection denied, will not be a suitable home environment for a growing and developing child. When a child is denied these rights or privileges, a negative attitude is developed towards the learning environment. Lack of adequate supervision affects students’ performance. The child tends to take things lightly and is very resistant and unserious concerning school activities. Children can come from various types of home such as the natural and stable home, the polygamous home, divorced or separated homes. Children from a natural and stable home usually have a more positive attitude towards learning. They have been seen over the years to be more successful academically and intellectually in all areas of their academic training. Due to the peaceful co-existence at home, the children grow up to feel loved and derive a clear understanding of the society, the environment in which they live, as well as develop a proper manner of altitude justifying to the environment.
The home and the family set up have the greatest influence on the child. The parental influence and childhood experiences are considered important factors that are responsible for child’s development and intelligence. Dubey (1997) stated that “no other agent of socialization is as important to the total makeup of the child as is family”. The home should provide a good environment and facilities for a child to learn and to develop early education experiences. According to Croward (1990), “The home plays a significant role in the early development year of a child.
Also, flemmy (1990) believe that the first in the sequence of a child’s extra school experience is the home into which he is born. It is desirable to discover as much as possible about the background from which a student comes from.
Lodger (1992) believes that education should begin from birth and in the home. To him education was in fact growth and that the early years were all important. This he the environment of the child influences his character and all true education involves balance and harmony,
Walter 1995 sees home background as the basis for student development. If the home is secured, in peace and harmony, children are most likely to be at peace with everything they do. Once the home broken., and the is with either parent, there is always vacuum. So a parent who keeps custody of the child must play a dual role.
It can therefore be expected that the home conditions will exercise considerable influence on the child’s background. The kind of mental challenge to which a child is exposed to at various periods is likely to determine the kind of mental abilities which he/she possesses.
According to Odebunmi (1975) “when parent are aware of favourable environment, children may be academically prepared for formal school such as secondary school and tertiary institutions. This statement suggests that the child’s home has a considerable role to play in the educational development of the child. Similarly, Taiwo (1997) stated that, “The home should provide the opportunity for a child to show his interest and ability by providing an environment which is intellectually stimulating to the child. Parents should encourage their children by providing them with school materials books, writing materials and other school needs that might help them develop intellectually. A child that that deprived of the above items and encouragement would find it difficult in adjusting to the conditions in the school.
The attitude of parents towards their children is an important factor influencing the academic performance of such a child. The way and first experiences a sense of belonging and affection while at home. The way and manner a child
It can therefore be expected that the home conditions will exercise considerable influence on the child’s background. The kind of mental challenge to which a child is exposed to at various periods is likely to determine the kind of mental abilities which he possesses. Parent should encourage their children by providing them school material such as books; writing materials and needs that might help them develop intellectually. A child that is deprived of the above items and encouragement would find it difficult in adjusting to the conditions in the school.
The attitude of parents towards their children is an important factor influencing the academic performance of such a child. A Child first experiences a sense of belonging and affection while at home. The way and manner a child behaves in school is a function of the relationship that exists between him and his parents at home. Studies have shown that a child who in loved and cared for by his parents responds positively to school work in terms of academic performance of parental affection perform poorly in school. Parents should therefore desist from depriving their children of their love and affection. Depriving a child of a good education or affection might turn the child to be a criminal or a truant in the school.
According to Durojaiye (1976) ‘’A child is not born a criminal, laziness or indolent, it is the environments that make him so. ‘’A child whose parents are educated would likely perform better than a child from semi- literate home. Various studied reveal a positive influence between the educational attainment of the parents and the academic performance of the students. Some of the researchers pointed out that, where parents are highly educated and reasonable; they can coordinate the home and school influence on their child in such a way as to bring progress in his academic work.
Douglas et al (1991) agrees that: if parents are themselves well educated and successful in life, the students are further stimulated to performance by this identification. Ogunlade (1993) looked into the extent to which the educated attained of students and students and his findings revealed that former has a greater effect on the latter. Various reviewed works (1992) carried out in the United Kingdom attempted to bring out the influence of occupation, income, educational attainment and cultural interest of parent on the abilities of children as measured by intelligence. Educated parents encouraged their children to develop interest in school work by providing for the child to be aware of a goal to strive towards. While children from homes with poor educational attainment may suffer from material deprivation. Their parents may consider going to school a waste of time, money, and energy and may be reluctant to provide for their school needs.
Douglas et al (1991) pointed out that: there are many aspects of home life and particularly to the relationship between parents and children which may stimulate or inhabits school progress through their effects on the children’s motivation to work and learn. It is generally considered that achieved is increased by strong motivation
One can infer from the above that, closeness to an adult member of the family may bring about remarkable results in one’s academic performance. When such adult member happens to be highly educated parent, the result is very likely to be far better. It is well known that children from different social classes achieve different degrees of academic success.
The Robin report (1993) noted generally, that there was a cumulative disadvantage for the children from working class homes. The report revealed that children from upper socio economic status have 60% greater chance of completing their education than children from low working class homes. Values and attitudes have been associated with different social classes and quite notable, is the way these values and attitudes influence parents, behavior towards the child.
Duvall (1996), gave two different values orientations among parents viz, traditional and development value. Traditional values are common among working class and lower class parents and are concerned with the cleanliness, obedience and the respect of the child. Development values on the other hand, place emphasis on the child’s motives and development of self-control and emphasis internal qualities. This according to her is found among the middleclass people. Hyman (1993), believe that middle class people value freedom and emphasis orderliness and security.
Odebunmi (1976), said that “middle class to provide a good environment for their children academic than those of poor parents’’. According to him, rich parents can provide books and materials for their children. Nevertheless Hurlock (1983) is of the opinion that the levels of social-economic status the students’ belong affect their social acceptance.
Bookcook (1982) agrees that the most important predictor of achievement associated with the family is the social- economic status of the parents. According to him, the higher the Social-economic status of the students’ family, the higher this schools achievement to be. Research shows the same pattern in the America, Asia and Africa. The relationship of social-economic status to achievement is well known, social-economic most important even in the face of the significant variable ability, (Bookcook 1982).However, social-economic status is associated with a complex number of variables and since environment is not a one dimensional thing, so socio-economic status is related to other family characteristics like the family size. The research in other countries shows, for examples that the children from lower economic status home where the family is lager start school with verbal disadvantage (Durbey et al 1998). This is assumed to be because such children have less interaction with adults since mothers and other siblings are working.
Also, Bookcook 1982 has found out that the kind of relationship and communication patterns that middle-class children in developed societies have with their parents, help them to participate in the expected direction in school. The reason for this difference in experience, knowledge, economic security and the requirements of their work situation (kohan 1982). Recent studies in Nigeria do seem to support this conceptualization. Bolarinwa (1977) illustrates how patterns of child’s behavior established in the home, have a carry-over to the school. Also, the hypothesis that there is a common cause, namely the pattern valued help by parents often influences both family size and intelligent quotient (IQ) of students has been tested and appears true (Menes Hint 1991). It would see that whatever the cause, the quality of life in larger families does not influence measured intelligences and perhaps even attitude towards the school. These tendencies in their turn will have a vital bearing on success at school more especially, in the process of selection for secondary education.
Influence of School Physical Facilities on Academic Achievement of Secondary school students
School facilities have been observed as a potent factor to quantitative education. The importance to teaching and learning of the provision of adequate instructional facilities for education cannot be over-emphasized. The dictum that “teaching is inseparable from learning but learning is notseparable from teaching” is that teachers do the teaching to make the students learn, but students can learn without the teachers. According to Akande (1995), learning can occur through one’s interaction with one’s environment. Environment here refers to facilities that are available to facilitate students learning outcome. It includes books, audio-visual, software and hardware of educational technology; so also, size of classroom, sitting position and arrangement, availability of tables, chairs, chalkboards, shelves on which instruments for practicals are arranged (Farrant, 1991 and Farombi, 1998).
Writing on the role of facilities in teaching, Balogun (2002) submitted that no effective science education programme can exist without equipment for teaching. This is because facilities enable the learner to develop problem-solving skills and scientific attitudes. In their contribution, Ajayi and Ogunyemi (1990) reiterated that when facilities are provided to meet relative needs of a school system, students will not only have access to the reference materials mentioned by the teacher, but individual students will also learn at their own paces. The net effect of this is increased overall academic performance of the entire students.
Commenting on why high academic attainment is not in vogue in Nigeria primary schools, Adesina (1991) identified poor and inadequate physical facilities, obsolete teaching techniques, overcrowded classrooms among others, as factors. Throwing more light on school facilities and moral guiding provision, Fabunmi (1997) asserted that school facilities when provided will aid teaching learning programme and consequently improve academic achievement of students while the models guiding their provision to schools could take any form as rational bureaucratic and or political model.
According to Hallak (1990), facilities form one of the potent factors that contribute to academic achievement of students in the school system. They include the school buildings, classroom, accommodation, libraries, laboratories, furniture, recreational equipment, apparatus and other instructional materials. He went further to say that their availability, relevance and adequacy contribute to academic achievement of students. He however, quickly added that unattractive school buildings and overcrowded classrooms among others contribute to poor academic achievement of the students in primary and other levels of education.
According to Ajewole and Okebukola (2000), a number of factors are said to have contributed to the students’ poor academic achievement in school. The authors stress that a host of these factors may surround students’ poor achievement in school which may include: poor study habits and lack of available resource materials, poor school climate, indiscipline, inadequate facilities, teachers’ ineffectiveness, the teaching method and the type of learning environment available for both the students and the teachers. From the authors view, the poor performance of students in primary school may be a reflection of the type of learning environment.
Farombi (1998) observed that school environment may have negative influence on students’ academic achievement especially if such environment lacks good school climate, instructional materials, discipline, physical facilities, has poor teacher quality, type of location of school is questionable,Odeh. R. C et al., Influence of School Environment on Academic Achievement of Students in Secondary Schools in Zone “A” Senatorial District of Benue State, Nigeria there is small class size and over population of students in classrooms. Farombi further opined that school facilities are a potent factor to quantitative education. The importance to teaching and learning of the provision of adequate instructional facilities for education cannot be over-emphasized. The dictum that “teaching is inseparable from learning but learning is not separable from teaching” is that teachers do the teaching to make the students learn, but students can learn without the teachers. According to Akande (1995), learning can occur through one’s interaction with one’s environment. Environment here refers to facilities that are available to facilitate students learning outcome. It includes books, audio-visual, software and hardware of educational technology; so also, size of classroom, sitting position and arrangement, availability of tables, chairs, chalkboards, shelves on which instruments for practicals are arranged (Farrant, 1991 and Farombi, 1998).
Tsavga (2011) maintains that the learning environment plays a vital role in determining how students perform or respond to circumstances and situations around them. This implies that no society is void of environmental influences. The learning environment determines to a large extent how a student behaves and interacts, that is to say that the environment in which we find ourselves tend to mould our behaviour so as to meet the demands of life whether negatively or positively. The author opined that the desire for both qualitative and quantitative education has multiplied the problem of providing an effective and conducive learning environment for teaching and learning. In Nigeria, there is an increase in the number of students’ enrolment in schools with little or no regards to improving the learning environment so as to better their performance.
Freiberg, Driscoll and Knights (1999) observed that some of the notable factors that may influence students’’ academic achievement in secondary schools are; school climate, instructional materials, discipline, physical facilities, teacher quality, type of location of school and class size. This is because, schools with a good and conducive environment that has the best type of teachers, instructional materials and physical facilities will produce better school leavers with high achievement. Most at times parents of students are not satisfied with the facilities provided in their school. Also, the extent at which some teachers, exhibit high level of indiscipline does not seem to portray them as role models. They rather encourage indiscipline among students by their attitudes. This may have negative influence of students’ academic achievement.
Adzemba (2006) defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to practice and experience. This definition is a confirmation of Akoja (2006), who views learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of insight, practice, experience or stimuli in the environment. To buttress further view school environment as the immediate surroundings of the school which also include classrooms dining halls, examination halls, football fields among others. For learning to be meaningful and effective, Learning environment according to Zaria in Aliade (2008) is a place where teachers impact knowledge of the various subjects to students thereby bringing them up morally and guide them as
regards to career choice. Awule cited in Aliade (2008) stated that learning environment should have good infrastructural development, adequate trained teachers, good leadership and adequate instructional materials among others. All these characteristics according to the author have positive impact on academic achievement of students in primary schools.
In the same vein Abenga (1995), opined that an improved environmental condition leads to higher intelligence scores while poor environmental conditions reduce these scores. Academic achievement in this context simply means the scores students have obtained in either examination or test which has led to their performance. In this study therefore, the researcher hopes to examine the influence of school environment on academic achievement of primary schools students in Zone A Senatorial District of Benue State with particular reference to availability of trained.
School location and academic performance
For over four decades, series of studies have suggested the importance of school as social environment of learning. Some of these studies examined locational planning and their attendant consequences on achievement of students in various states of the Federation. The studies were intended to assist education authorities of various states to decide where a particular type of school should be located; the size of a school in each location; whether a new school should be built or otherwise among others (Mbakwe, 1986). The World Bank recommended that the following data were needed for rationalizing and drawing up of both the urban and rural school map. Schools which includes physical aspects, site, type of building, usage, capacity, teachers (numbers, qualification, and age); students which include enrollment in school by age, individual data in age, sex, previous schools, home, location of mode transport, time taken in home/school journey, parental background; Rural and Urban Area Data which include land use administrative map on as large a scale as possible, planning reports, settlement patterns and the likes are required. These school locational planning techniques have been reportedly used by a number of countries to solve their educational problems (World Bank Guidelines 1978).
In applying the school locational planning to study and establishment of secondary level education in a plot study in Ondo State of Nigeria, Omoyemi (1978) discovered that locations of schools was not based on sound principles of distribution of population because of initial community participation. In his observation, Ogunsaju (1984) noted that School sites in the past were arbitrary chosen with little or no consideration for the necessary parameters such as creativity and corporate planning. In another development, Orebiyi (1981) using locational implication of secondary education reform in Oyi Local Government area of Kwara State between 1980 and 1985 purpots that unplanned location of secondary schools has limited the spread of secondary education to a few centers. Madumere (1982) investigated the distribution of secondary schools in Imo State (Ohaozara Local Government area), employing locational planning technique to carry out diagnostic and projection analysis on distribution of facilities in relation to education reforms, discovered among other things, that were imbalances in the relationship between population density and distribution of secondary schools by Local Government Area. In her analysis of the distribution of public primary schools in three selected Nigerian towns, Tanimowo (1995) discovered that the distribution of shows disorder, planlessness and inefficiency. The inefficiency here refers to pupil academic performance. The implication is that while people in some areas enjoy minimum travelling distances to acquire education, some people in other places suffer by having to cover maximum distances to acquire education; some people in other places suffer by having to cover maximum distances to get to their school. In line with the above, Onokerhoraye (1975) emphasized that lack of suitable school location has contributed to the imbalances of Western education from one part of the country to the other.
Writing on the importance of location, Ojoawo (1989) found that it is one of the potent factors that influence the distribution of educational resources. Throwing light on locational influence. Ezike (1997) conceptualized urban environment as those environment as those environment which have high population density containing a high variety and beauty and common place views. He further identified the rural environment as being characterized by low population density containing a low variety and isolated place views. Earlier in his contribution, Lipton (1962) corroborated that “rural community is characterized by low population, subsistence mode of life, monotonous and burdensome.
“Citing hotels, recreational centers, markets, banks and good road network as being present in their urban environment. Owolabi (1990) accentuated that our highly qualified teachers prefer to serve therein rather than the rural areas. As a corollary of the above, Kuliman et al (1977) observed that teachers do not accept postings to rural areas because their conditions are not up to the expected standard as their social life in the areas is virtually restricted as a result of inadequate amenities; facilities are deficient, playground are without equipment, libraries are without books while laboratories are glorified ones.
Making a critical analysis of locational factors, Hallak (1977) surmised that provision of education in rural areas is normally fraught with the following difficulties and problems; qualified teachers refuse appointment in isolated villages; villagers refuse to send their children to schools because they are dependent on them for help; parents hesitate to entrust their daughters to male teachers; some villagers have few children for an ordinary primary school; lack of roads or satisfactory means of communication makes it difficult to get books and teaching materials to the school which place difficulties in the way of organizing school transport among others. Writing on the improvisation of science teaching equipment in line with location, Balogun (1982) lamented that unfortunately in Nigeria, where there is a preponderance of poverty among us populace and a wide gap between the rich and the poor … disparity in the distribution of resources and social amenities on the part of the government, the population has polarized into two –of those who favorably affected and those who are disfavored. These two groups have been forced on economic reasons and levels of education to organize themselves into two different sub geographical locations to a very large extent determine what amenities and or facilities are made available to each.
The above findings were corroborated by Mbakwe (1986) when he affirmed that teachers are differentially distributed to schools. According to him, apart from the tendency of qualified teachers to seek deployment in Army schools located in urban towns, particularly in the state capitals, more school facilities and services tended to be concentrated in urban schools. In the words of Sander (1972), he observed that teachers with the highest training are posted to largest cities, and even more noticeably to the capital. This and more findings abound on the disparity in the quality of teachers in urban schools compared to those in rural areas, which consequently affect student’s academic attainment. Ibukun (1988) in his investigation observed that teachers in urban secondary schools in Ondo State tended to be better qualified pointing out that there was no deliberate government policy supporting such lopsided resource allocation. In his conclusion, he said rural schools probably become progressively poorly staffed arising from personal refusal of teachers to serve in remote locations. In such location, their pattern of school lives are characterized by dilapidated buildings, which form extension to old ones thus forming a sort of patchwork, with others growing too old and no longer viable. According to Banford (1973), some of the schools apart from the fact that they are too costly to run, some have been deserted by their pupils….. teachers in the development of a stereotype about rural schools, Boylan (1998) reported that rural schools were inferior and lacking in the range of facilities with high staff turnover and suffered from lack of continuity in their curriculum. He pointed further that they are staffed by young, beginning and often in experienced staff who regrettably, would not conform to socio-cultural ethos and above all, offered a restricted curriculum, especially to secondary school students. They were also staffed by teachers who accepted their appointment because either; there was no better appointment available, or it was regarded as a quick set up on to promotional ladder.
Writing on locational influence on academic achievement of students. Obe (1984) observed a significant difference in urban-rural performance of 480 primary six school finalist on the aptitude sub-tests of the (Nigeria) National Common Entrance Examination (NCEE) into secondary schools. In his study tagged scholastic aptitude test, he concluded that children from urban schools were superior to their rural counterparts. (Scholastic Achievement Test (SAT) have been described as a broad based achievement measure… Vernon (1951), Musgroove (1965), and Obemeata (1976) hold similar view with Obe’s findings. According to Kemjika (1989), in his studies on urban and rural differences in general showed that location of the community in which the school is situated has effect on the performance of pupils. Giving credence to the above, Ajayi (1988) found significant difference in academic performance of students in urban and rural areas of his study. He therefore concluded that the achievement must have been borne out of many facilities they were used to which were not available in the rural set up. In his study, Omisade (1985) also observed a significant positive relationship between size and location of school and performances in examination in Oyo State. He concluded that large schools in urban areas tend to perform better in examinations than small schools in rural areas.
In their findings, however, Axtel and Bowers (1972) found that students from the rural areas perform significantly better than their urban counterpart in verbal aptitude, English Language and total score using the National Common Entrance as a base. In another development, a research team at University of Aston recorded that it had received several well-founded reports that secondary schools have found (pupils from small rural schools) not only as well prepared academically as pupils from other schools, but they generally had a better attitude to work. Having been accustomed to working most of the time on their own, they could be given more responsibility for the organization of their work. Size could not exert significant direct effect on pupils’ attitude towards science. Similar view was expressed by Gana (1997) when in his study on the effect of using designed visual teaching models on the learning of Mathematics at Junior Secondary level of Niger State, found that there was no significant difference in Mathematics achievement scores of students in urban and rural locations.
From the various review of literature on locational influence on academic are not the same. While some maintain that urban students perform better in examinations than their rural counterparts, other has found that rural students (in spite of all odds) perform better. Some have submitted in their findings and concluded that no particular set up (urban or rural) can claim superiority over the other because their performances are the same. Alokan (2010) found out that students’ problems are strongly associated with poor performance and that sex and location do not affect the negative relationship between student problems and academic performance. In another development, Considine and Zappala (2002) studied students in Australia and found out that geographical location do not significantly predict outcomes in school performance.
Shield and Dockrell (2008) while looking at the effects of classroom and environmental noise on children’s academic performance found out that both cronic and acute exposure to environmental and classroom noise have a detrimental effect upon children’s learning and performance. In view of these inconclusive findings, it necessary to carry out further research to confirm or annul the otherwise protracted issue on the effect of interaction of location (urban/rural dichotomy) on academic achievement of Secondary Schools students with particular reference to Ekiti State Nigeria.
A number of studies have been carried out to identify and analyse the numerous factors that affect academic performance in various centres of learning. Their findings identify students’ effort, previous schooling (Siegfried &Fels, 1979; Anderson &Benjamin, 1994), parents’ education, family income (Devadoss & Foltz, 1996), self- motivation, age of student, learning preferences (Aripin, Mahmood, Rohaizad,Yeop, &Anuar, 2008), class attendance (Romer, 1993), and entry qualifications as factors that have a significant effect on the students’ academic performance in various settings. The utility of these studies lies in the need to undertake corrective measures that improve the academic performance of students, especially in public funded institutions. The throughput of public-funded institutions is under scrutiny especially because of the current global economic downturn which demands that governments improve efficiency in financial resource allocation and utilization.Although there has been considerable debate about the determinants of academic performance among educators, policymakers, academics, and other stakeholders,it is generally agreed that the impact of these determinants vary (in terms of extent and direction) with context, for example, culture, institution, course of study etc.
Since not all factors are relevant for a particular context, it is imperative that formal studies be carried out to identify the context-specific determinants for sound decision making. This literature review provides a brief examination of some of the factors that influence academic performance. The choice of factors reviewed here was based on their importance to the current study.
2.3 THEORITIACL FRAMEWORK
Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognitive learning theory explains how internal and external factors influence an individual’s mental processes to supplement learning.
Delays and difficulties in learning are seen when cognitive processes are not working regularly. These processes are such as attention, observation, retrieval from long-term memory, and categorization.
Several researchers have made significant contributions to this theory. Jerome Bruner focused on how mental processes are linked to teaching.
Another researcher by the name Jean Piaget recognized that the environment plays a huge role and also focused on changes that take place in the internal cognitive structure.
Social Cognitive Theory
This theory explains how people are influenced and their influence on the environment.
One of the major components of social cognitive theory is observational learning. It is the process of learning others’ desirable and undesirable behaviors through observation.
It is a quick way of acquiring information when you individually take action. A person who demonstrates behavior for another person is known as a model.
These may be real people such as teachers, our peers, and supervisors, or symbolic models, also known as fictional characters that influence an observer’s behavior.
Cognitive Behavioral Theory
This theory mainly refers to our mental processes, such as our thoughts and interpretations of life events.
It explains how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of a person interact with each other. Thoughts lead to particular emotions, which in turn lead to specific behavioral responses.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning Theory (SLT) Social learning theory is increasingly cited as an essential component of sustainable natural resource management and the promotion of desirable behavioural change. (Muro & Jeffrey 2008). This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our interactions with others in a social context. Separately, by observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors. After observing the behavior of others, people assimilate and imitate that behavior, especially if their observational experiences are positive ones or include rewards related to the observed behavior. According to Bandura, imitation involves the actual reproduction of observed motor activities. (Bandura 1977). SLT has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. It is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory. This theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. (Muro & Jeffrey 2008). However, on this regards, Bandura believes that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. For that reason, in his theory he added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. According to the elements of this theory there are three general principles for learning from each other.
General principles of SLT
The principles of social learning are assumed to operate in the same way throughout life. Observational learning may take place at any age. Insofar as exposure to new influential, powerful models who control resources may occur at life stage, new learning through the modeling process is always possible. (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007). SLT posits that people learn from one another, via: Observation;
• Imitation; and
• Modeling
Based on these general principles, learning can occur without a change in behavior. In other words, behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior; while in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. (Bandura, 1965). Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. (Bandura, 2006b). Bandura demonstrated that cognition plays a role in learning and Over the last 30 years social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning; these points supported by (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007).
2.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several authors and scholars on the concept of academic performance. The works of scholars who conducted empirical studies have been reviewed also. In this chapter also, the researcher has been able to review some literature on schools’ facilities and students’ performance, teachers’ qualification and students’ performance, schools’ environment and students’ performance, home background students’ performance, influence of school physical facilities on academic achievement of secondary school students, and school location and academic performance. This chapter is thus fulfilled the conceptual, theoretical and empirical requirements