COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MALE AND FEMALE STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN ENGLISH AND MATHEMATICS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

THE ROLE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE OF COMMUNICATION

English language was introduced into Nigeria from the time the English traders, missionaries and administrators came into different part of Nigeria from 1842 Eka (2000). In Badagry the missionaries established schools even before the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates in 1914 to form the country Nigeria. Right from that time up till this present day, Nigeria places English Language above all 515 local languages of the ethnic groups in the country according to Urua (2004). English Language is the only Official Language of communication in government, educational institutions, commerce, industries, politics, social interactions, law, judiciary, economics and many other issues. The role of English as a global language of communication is measured in the context of its geographical spread round the world from Europe, America, Asia, Australia, and Africa to Oceania. Crystal (1987) stated that English Language ranks at the first among the top 20 languages in the world which is used and adopted as official language in many countries. It is also the language spoken as the first language by many technologically advanced countries in the world. English Language no doubt, is an effective mechanism for technological acquisition, growth and productivity to Nigeria. Even though Fafunwa (1975) postulated that people appreciate, study and learn better if they are taught in their indigenous languages, but Essien (2003:2) succinctly stated that "even the most ardent nationalist would not deny his children full access to English" for the simple reason that it is the dominant language in Nigeria and the whole world. Although English is a second language in Nigeria, it is a basic tool for national growth and productivity because it enhances the acquisition of knowledge, transcends various ethnic and linguistic barriers, professions, economic, political and social spheres. The knowledge obtained from formal education in Nigeria is through English Language, so there cannot be any national growth or productivity without proper teaching and learning of English Language. For instance, no student gains admission to read any course at the University in Nigeria without a credit pass in English Language. This therefore underscores the importance of the language to our educational system. English Language as a global language is quite developed and standardized over the years to accommodate new technological development. The modern Information Communication System (ICS) like computers, internet and multimedia systems make use of English Language extensively. Even though other developed nations like Russia, France, Germany, China and Italy make use of their local languages in the development of their computers and other technologies, they still rely on English as the basis of their communication of technological development. That is why they equally study English Language to fall in line with the global language. Hudson (1980) explained that for a language to be developed it should be standardized with orthography, literary works, reference books, used as language of instruction in schools, media and education. As can be observed globally, English Language has all the basic requirements as a developed as well as international language.

ISSUES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING IN NIGERIA

English Language as the only official language of education in Nigeria has been affected by the attitude of educational policy makers, curriculum planners, and the teachers of the language, the pupils and students studying the language. It is not an understatement to say that the language has not been given its pride of place and serious attention as it used to be some decades ago simply because many educated and uneducated people see it as a foreign colonial language. Those who postulate this idea are in the majority so their attitude tends to affect the teachers and learners of the language. Eyo (2004:32-42) observed that policies are made to discourage its teaching and learning at the early stages in Nigeria children's education, so unsuccessful attempts have been made at killing it through the introduction of indigenous national languages. The indigenous languages do not serve the basic useful purposes of education, interaction and communication as they should. Emphasizing on the importance and relevance of English Language, Udofot (2000:35) noted that "English is the language of computer programming and the Internet" and as such, Nigeria cannot afford to be illiterate in the language that controls the world affairs.

The unseriousness and deplorable standard of English in Nigeria is decried by Ndimele (2005:145). He lamented that "language like all organisms depend on their environment for survival" but he further explained that the Nigerian environment in this generation of speakers is totally unfriendly to English not because of deviation and creativities characteristics of language in contact but due to "ungrammatical expressions and poor sentences structures prevalent among the youths and the current generation of speakers of English in Nigeria". Essien (2003: 34) supported this view and added that "the English used by many Nigerians of younger generation may have English words and expressions but little English grammar and meaning". This kind of spoken and written English cannot be the language for growth, development and productivity to the Nigerian nation, because the pupils and students who imitate the literate, semi-literate and educated non-English majors, will never pass examinations in English or even in their major subjects and disciplines. This shows that the teachers of English and the education curriculum planners have failed the nation because of their inability to propound new pedagogical methods to enhance the effective studies in the language at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels.

Udofot (2002: 64-87) identified home background and the quality of primary and secondary education as factors which affect the standard performance in English. The poor performance of English as these levels of education can be attributed to the influence of the parents, society, teachers and that of the learners. Where the majority of parents are illiterates they cannot interact with their children in proper English. Some even use pidgin and the children copy same from them. Therefore, background affects their communicative competence more than any other factor. English as a developed language has its code, principles and practice. Language though, defined by Block and Tragers (1945:5-10) as "a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a group communicate", has rules governing sentence structural pattern and symbols that guide its usage. Majority of those who use the English Language in Nigeria do not observe these rules that are why they make ungrammatical expressions that are ambiguous to proficient speakers and listeners. When this happens, there is usually a misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the message by the listeners. As the language of global communication and influence, Udontata (2004: 44- 45) propounded that English Language now serves the function of providing interconnectivity between communities and persons in our global village and man can enhance this global interconnectivity through co-operation and understanding in the study and appreciation of English Language. There is need for a change of attitude if we must employ English as a global language.

The Problem Of Teaching Techniques

Also Bright and McGregor (1970) talked about the problem of teaching techniques. They maintain that an area that may be taught directly concerns the pronunciation of numerous structural words in unstressed position. Numerous decisions are involved about just what to include in careful colloquial speech and what is casual and need not be presented for active use.

The point emphasized here is that there are often complications or confusions surrounding most teaching techniques.According to the British council (2013), a lack of communication skills is one of the effects of bad teaching techniques bedevilling the effective teaching of Oral English. They maintain that Communication skills include many things; using the target language effectively, the way in which we speak to the person we are speaking to, our body language including facial expressions, pitch and tone of your voice, interpersonal skills and a lot of other things. Effective communication skills are now required in each and every aspect of our life. Teachers of English are expected to have good command over the language and possess excellent communication skills.

For a teacher, it is not just important to give a quality lecture but it is also more important for the presentation of a lesson or lecture in class to be effective. A teacher with communication skills can enhance the learning process of students. Teachers of English must possess the following communication skills: Proficiency in English, positive motivation, effective body language, sense of humour, interpersonal skills and so on.

They posits that communication skills include using the target language effectively, the way we speak our body language, facial expressions, pitch and tone of voice and so on. They go further to talk about proficiency in English, positive motivation and sense of humour as those things which should not be lacking in the teaching of Oral English.

The Problem Of Non – Availability Of Specialists

One important variable in the learning situation is the teacher himself. His skill and his personality are instrumental in creating the conditions for learning. His skill is dependent on two factors, his own proficiency in the language and his knowledge of and expertise in methods and techniques of language teaching. The language proficiency of teachers cannot be taken for granted. There are countries where the teachers themselves have been relatively ill taught, where resources are lacking, where the education itself is relatively undeveloped and where teachers consequently are hardly able to use language for real communication. (Wilkins 1982)

Different points have been highlighted by Wilkins he maintains that the skill and personality of the teacher are very vital in the teaching/learning situation. He stresses that the skill of the teacher is dependent on his knowledge of and expertise in methods and techniques. He also decried the situation whereby the teachers themselves have been relatively ill taught, and the problem of lack of resources.

Wellman (1978) raised a number of salient points his argument. First, he points out that the teaching of English as a second language is a highly specialized field it is not simply a matter of knowing English and teaching it to non-native speaker. In order to qualify for a teacher’s license, a candidate must be well versed in phonetics”. This means that as we need specialist in the field of medicine to do the work of a medical practitioner, and a lawyer, and not a carpenter to do the work of a legal practitioner, teaching of Oral English which is no doubt a specialized field should be taught by a teacher who is a specialist in Oral English. He also points out that the teacher should not be certified until he shows evidence that he is versed in phonetics glaring that teacher who did not study Oral English have no business teaching Oral English. When they teach Oral English, they would teach nothing but error.

Broughton et al (1980) on the part condemn a situation whereby Oral English is taught by people who have no specific training. Their position is in line with that of Wellman Laurie (1978). It is obvious that Broughton et al frown at a situation whereby somebody begins to teach English merely because he is a native of the English Language. They argue that it is not enough to be a native speaker, but to be trained in order to become a professional teacher of English.

Hook et al (1970) talk about the issue of knowledge and skill on the part of the teacher. They go further to explain that a specialized methods course and carefully supervised student teaching can contribute extensively to the prospective teacher’s knowledge and skill. Their argument is that the teacher should be versed in his subject, study the students to know more about them and their needs they believe that knowing the subject very well, and knowing the students very well would help the teacher to be very skilful in teaching them. Chen and Goh (2011) in their research list the problem which the teachers encounter in teaching Oral English in the English as a foreign language context to include external constraints such as large class sizes and a lack of teaching resources: and teachers’ low self-efficacy with regard to Oral English proficiency and inadequate pedagogical knowledge. They believe that teachers should receive training in how to design and implement effective tasks to motivate students’ engagement in Oral activities.

MATHEMATICS

Mathematics occupies central position in education because mathematics is a science and the nucleus of all other sciences, which lays strong emphasis on both theory and practical. Mathematics is also called the science of reasoning. There were a few premises on which we based our reasoning. Reasoning in Mathematics is of two types: Inductive and deductive. When statements containing mathematical truths were based on general observations and experience, reasoning is called inductive whereas deductive type the statements are products of mind. The method of teaching is very important for teacher of any subject generally and for the mathematics teacher particularly. Method is nothing but a scientific way of presenting the subject, keeping in mind the psychological and physical requirements of the children. For effective learning of mathematics the method has to be as good as the content. It is through method only that it is possible to make a subject interesting and useful. While teaching a set of pupils with varying interests, aptitudes and attitudes, one should be aware of the psychological basis of teaching learning process. Communication of ideas and development of concepts in a precise manner based on a logical development of subject is the most important pre-requisite in teaching a subject like mathematics. Generally students were afraid of studying mathematics, as there are various reasons for that method being one of them. Pupils tend to learn mathematics through a meaningful approach rather than by a mechanical process. Education has many aspects e.g. learning, guidance and counseling, evaluation, teaching and testing. Testing is a process for accurate evaluation. An instrument used for testing is called test. Tests may be used as an evaluative, teaching, guiding, supervisory and research device (Garrison, 1960). Tests are used to measure the quality or genuineness. Achievement tests are used to measure students’ knowledge (Aiken, 1985), actual learning in education subject matter (Freeman, 1965). The goals of teaching at college level are countless, and include not only academic objectives, but social ones as well (Darder, Baltodano & Torres, 2003; Gutierrez, 2002). Still, mathematics and reading are typically considered by the majority of society to be the fundamental subjects to know and are therefore what are most commonly used to measure a student’s or school’s success or failure. In particular, mathematics is said to serve as a “critical filter,” or a gateway to many high-status occupations (Schoenfeld, 2004), as quantitative skills are crucial in such areas as commerce, medicine, technology and defense (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). In addition, mathematics achievement is considered to be a better indicator of school effects because it is thought to be less influenced by family background and home effects than other subjects (Heyneman, 2005). Therefore, the research presented herein focuses on mathematics achievement as a measure of school effectiveness. Proficiency of achievement is a given skill or body of knowledge (Swan, 2000).Statistics has great importance in all fields of researches. Statistical techniques were used for elaborating of results. Statistics is suitable tool for the analysis (quantitative as well as qualitative) used also in achievement testing. No worthmentioning research work has been seen in the field of testing in the subject of Mathematics, especially at Higher Secondary stage. The major purpose of study was a comparison study of gender wise achievement of the students of mathematics at intermediate level. Mathematics is being taught as a core subject up to secondary level. However it becomes an optional subject from Higher Secondary School level onwards. No one could deny the importance of mathematics in every sphere of life. Mathematics is the most fascinating discourse of human knowledge. It is based on logic. In mathematics, by using widely accepted statements, conclusions were drawn and mathematical systems were developed. The basic mathematics taught in higher secondary schools involved the study of numbers quantity form and relationship. For example, the contents and scope of mathematics include: Arithmetic Algebra, Trigonometry, Basic Statistics, Information System, Functions, Differentiation, Integration, Analytic Geometry, Linear Programming, Conic Section, Vector Analysis, Computer Technology and many new emerging concepts associated with mathematical reasoning. No doubt that a larger proportion of failures have been reported in Science subjects particularly in mathematics. Of course, it is universally recognized that the quality of testing controls the quality of teaching. Proficiency of achievement is a given skill or body of knowledge (Swan, 2000).

GENDER DIFFERENCE IN STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN ENGLISH AND MATHEMATICS

Harvey (2011), Dweck et al. (1983) asserted that gender difference impact on learning due to differences in terms of reinforcement strategies, sociocultural environmental variables and gender learning due differences in male and female genders. There are also propositions that males and females vary in their cognitive abilities in language (Amin, 2006; Sax, 2007; Burman et. al. 2008; Gomez, 2011; Hodgins, 2012 ecetera). Hence, the justification to separate them in the course of instruction. This position was challenged as not impacting enough to result into any significant difference in the performance of the genders (Rowe, 1988;, Haker and Nash, 1997; Lee & Lockheed, 1990 and Pahlke, Hyde and Allison, 2014). The Gender and Education Association (GEA) (2012) observed that certain subjects are gender stereotyped, for example, males believed to be better in mathematics, sciences and engineering and are therefore, masculine subjects and females believed to be better than males in language arts etc. and therefore a feminine subject. So also, the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE, 1995) observed earlier that there was serious gender inequity in the instructional materials aspect of curriculum and instruction when even the number of female characters in literature books was discovered to be fewer than that of males and that both male and female characters displayed traits which are gender stereotypical. These observations by (GEA) and (NCTE, 1995) were made to make a case for single gender education or streaming.

In Manchester University in England, researchers used before and after approach to investigate the effectiveness of single and mixed gender streaming systems in enhancing students’ academic achievement. They assigned students at five public schools either to single-sex or to coed classrooms randomly. The result showed a significant difference in the performances of the two streams.The result indicates that 68 percent of boys who wereassigned to single-gender stream classes subsequently passed a standardized test of language skills against 33 percent of boys assigned to mixed gender stream classes.(Henry Juliet, in NASSPE, 2011).Carol (2006) investigated the effects of single-sex and mixed-sex classes on the academic achievement of middle school students at Stonewall Jackson Middle School in Charleston, West Virginia cutting across the students’ sex, minority status, socio-economic status, and special education status using a sample of 279 students. The result revealed a significant difference in the performances of the two streams. The results of the study reveal that the use of single-sex classes significantly improved student achievement in reading/language arts and math with greater advantage for single gender classes for females.

In study by Muhamed et’ al (2016) , The major objectives of the study were: To compare the achievement of male and female students in the subject of mathematics at higher secondary school level, to compare the achievement of male and female students in the subject of mathematics with respect to teachers’ teaching experience, to compare the achievement of male and female students in the subject of mathematics with respect to teachers’ qualifications and to examine gender difference, gender difference in positive attitude of teachers towards students. The population of the study comprised 1336 mathematics teachers and 73455 male and female mathematics students of higher secondary schools and colleges of Punjab province. The study was delimited to two Boards, i.e. Rawalpindi and Sargodha. The researchers used two questionnaires as research instruments. The researchers personally visited the selected institutions and the questionnaires were administered to 440 mathematics students of part-2 at intermediate level, and 60 mathematics teachers from higher secondary schools and colleges. The data were analyzed by using t-test and chi-square-test. The main conclusions of the study were: The performance of girls was better than performance of boys. Students taught by experienced teachers showed better performance. Teachers’ qualification influenced students’ performance. Students taught by highly qualified teachers (M. Phil. /Ph.D.) showed better performance than those taught by less qualified teachers. The female teachers had more positive attitude towards students than male teacher.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Cognitive Learning Theory

This is another type of learning theory which is sometime referred as gestalts or rationalistic learning theory by different authors in psychology. Prominent scholars in the camp of learning theory includes Kalver, Max Wertheimer Kal Dunker Bruner, Jean Piaget (1896-1980).

This group has the preconceived impression that man is born with innate abilities. He is dynamic and can manipulate and recon structure his environment, According to those group, man is born purposeful and his extremely goals is directed and active by nature. As an active creature the individual once given a stimulating environment, can always manipulate the environmental variables to his satisfaction.

The cognitive learning theory defines learning as the active restructure or organizing of one’s environment through perception and which occurs once insight is gained. they assume that learning occurs as a result of “whole” and not in a “piece” meal” fashion as propounded by the behaviorists they believed that learners are actively involved in the learning process and formation of mental association that are not reflected in overt behavior changes they also believe that knowledge is organized and learning is a process of relating new information to previous learned information.

Social Learning Theory

This theory has been described by some authorities in psychology of learning as the interactive approach to learning. Social learning theory as advanced by Bandura and Walters (1963) is one of the interactionist explanations of learning theory is based on the fact that behavior is learned phenomenon and as a result of personality can be explained in terms of cumulative effects of a sense of learning experience . social learning emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between an individual and his environment, the most basic and significant principle of social learning is reinforcement.

According to Bandura and Walters, they argue that most of our behavior in social situations is acquired through the principle of various reinforcement which refers to the modification of an observers. Behavior through the reinforcement administered to a model which is been observed. Learning occurs through the process of observation. For effective teaching and learning of financial accounting in secondary schools, the teachers should take into consideration some principles of learning which are agreed by psychologist in order to form a basic successful teaching and learning.

Learning is faster if the learner is given immediate feedback of his progress in the learning process, therefore teachers should always try to reinforce any correct response given by a learner to motivate him or her, and for him to work harder. Learning is achieved if the teaching environment is conducive. A hostile classroom environment stifle learning, while a friendly and democratic classroom environment affords every learner the opportunity to contribute interact and ask questions and by so doing the learner understands the different aspect of the concept taught. Therefore all accounting teachers should try and make their teaching environment friendly to the learner in order to encourage active participation, learning is faster if what is taught is adequately sequenced in such a way that new concept are built on already learnt concepts by this progression, it move from known to the unknown and this makes the learner to learn in a stress free and anxiety free environment.

2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

A number of empirical studieswere conducted on both single and mixed gender streaming to ascertain the efficacy of each in the contemporary educational practices. NASSPE (2011) reported a study by the National Foundation for Educational Research commissioned in England to study the effect of school size and type (single-sex vs. coeducational) on academic performance. The Foundation studied 369,341 students from 2,954 public high schools throughout England. The study revealed that even after controlling for students' academic ability and other background factors, a significant difference was reported in the performes of the two stream types and males in single gender school did significantly better than those in mixed gender schools in all subjects.Bosire, Mondoh and Barmao(2008)report the result of their study on the effect of streaming students by gender in Mathematics achievement using 1,489 candidates in four secondary schools in Nakuru District, Kenya. The result show a significant difference in the performances of the two female streams. The result indicates that male students in the normal mixed-sex school scored significantly higher than those in single gender schools. This result indicates that males taught in mixed-class scored higher than those taught in single-gender stream class environment. Pahlkeet. al. (2014) did a study on the effects of single-sex compared with coeducational schooling on students’ performance and attitudes. In doing so they did a meta-analysis of results of studies undertaken and published from 1968 to 2013. The results did not reveal significant evidence to show any difference in the performance between males in single-sex or coeducational schools/classrooms. Other hand, Lee and Lockheed (1990) studied the influence of gender stream on students’ performance in Nigeria in mathematics using 1,012 ninth grade students and found no significance in gender gap. However, they found that in single-sexschools outperformed males in co-educational schools.Rowe (1988) sampled 398 Australian middleschool students’ scores to determine if single gender stream can improved performance in mathematics. The result revealed no significant difference between the single gender streams/classes andthe coeducational ones.Gilson (1999) examined the effects of single-sex classes on males’ performance and attitudes toward math by comparing single sex and co-educational math classesinprivate middle schools in the United States and found no significant difference in their performances. The majority of reviewed literature above have indicated the positive aspect of single gender streaming of female students.