CURBING MALPRACTICE IN EXAMINATION; THE ANTIDOTE FOR A SANE SOCIETY
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews literature related to the subject of leadership styles and teachers’ job performance. The chapter further presents a review of different literature on the leadership styles and teachers’ job performance in Tanzania and elsewhere in the world. It also identifies the research gap that the study intended to fill.
2.2 The Concept of Leadership Styles and Teacher’s Job Performance
Since the success of an organization is reliant on the leader’s ability to optimize human resources. A good leader understands the importance of employees in achieving the goals of the organization, and that to motivate the employees is important in achieving these goals. It has been widely accepted that effective organizations require effective leadership and that organizational performance will suffer in direct proportion to the neglect of this (Fiedler and House, 1988). Furthermore, it is generally accepted that the effectiveness of any group of people is largely depended on the quality of its leadership. Effective leader behavior facilitates the attainment of the follower’s desires, which then results in effective performance.
2.3 Leadership Styles
Every leader in every organization performs a certain task for the smooth running of the organization and improvement of organizational performance. As a result,
Ezeuwa (2005), saw it as the act of influencing people so that they strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the accomplishment of goals. In the same manner, Ukeje (1999) observes that leadership means influencing people to work willingly with deal towards the achievement of the corporate goals. A leader cannot work alone; he/ she must have people to influence, direct, carry along, sensitize and mobilize towards the achievement of the corporate goal. This means that, a leader performs these roles and directs the affairs of the organization is referred to as his/her leadership style. Leadership style therefore is the way a leader leads. Some leaders are more interested in the work to be done than in the people they work with while others pay more attention to their relationship with subordinates than the job. Whether a leader emphasizes the task or human relations is usually considered central to leadership style. Chandan (1987), define leadership style is the ingredient of personality embodied in leaders that causes subordinates to follow them. Omolayo (2009) identified different styles of leadership. They are autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. An autocratic leader defines his goals and facilitates group movement toward them.
This type of head teacher decides everything and tries to manipulate the teachers into approving his ideas on how the school should function. An autocratic leader does not trust anybody. A democratic head teacher helps the members of his staff define their own goals and facilitates action towards these goals. Democratic leadership can improve group efficiency and improved production and follows member participation in defining specific production goals. The Laissez-faire leader allows the employee to make the decisions. The leader tends to avoid power and
authority. The following are the common types of leadership style that were used in this study.
2.3.1 Democratic Leadership Styles
Democratic leadership refers to a situation where there is equal work among leaders and followers. According to Goldman (2002), democratic organizations typically have the following six characteristics: policies are determined by a group of organizations, technical and job performance measures are discussed so they are understood by all, leaders provide advice to members in regards to implementing tasks, members are free to choose with whom they work, the group determines the distribution of tasks, and leaders try to be objective in giving praise and criticism. Goldman (2000) states that leaders using a democratic style of leadership build consensus through participation, but these leaders also expect a higher level of excellence and self direction. The democratic style of leadership emphasizes group and leader participation in the making of policies. Decisions about organizational matters and were success after consultation and communication with various people in the organization.
Njuguna (1998) argues that, head teachers rated as being democratic have high academic performance than autocratic head teachers. Leaders who use democratic style in decision-making encourage group discussion and believe in decision- making through consensus. Democratic leaders still make the final decision, but do so only after carefully considering what other group members have said. Usually, their decision goes with the majority. In a school set up, the head teacher has to
consult school board, teachers and sometimes student’s leaders before any decision was made. Whereas this method is considered to be effective, the time that it takes to reach a group consensus can be crippling for a project. In order for every group member to be heard, discussion can last for a very long time. This can led to frustration and especially where there is need for urgency. The following are the four types of democratic leadership style.
Participative Style
The leader who employs this style consults with subordinates for ideas and takes their ideas seriously when making decisions. This style is effective when subordinates are well motivated and competent (Lussier and Achua, 2001).
Consultative Styles
The leader has substantial but not complete confidence and trust in the employees. Although general decisions are made by the leader, he/she seeks the opinions of the employees, but he makes the final decision. The employees have positive attitudes toward the organization, the manager and their work. When the employees feel that enough consultation has not taken place, they publicly accept orders from the manager, but sometimes covertly resist the order by insubordination, especially when the manager decides on majority rules principle (Owens, 1981).The manager consults through relevant channels, with subordinates. They in turn consult with him/her on matters they would like to bring to his/her attention (Brownwell, 1985). Control is mainly at the top. Middle management usually delegates tasks to control subordinates at lower levels. This is done in terms of appraisal, evaluation and
supervision. Subordinates perceive control as a way of maintaining the set standard (Ukeje, 1992).
Directive Style
Directive leadership style is similar to the task-oriented style. The leader who uses this type of leadership style provides teachers with specific guidelines, rules and regulations with regard to planning, organizing and performing activities. This style is seemed to be appropriate when the subordinates’ ability is low and or the task to be performed is complex or ambiguous. Work performance is increased when the leader gives more directives (Hoy and Miskel, 2001).
Supportive Style
Supportive leadership style is more of a relationship-oriented style. It requires the leader to be approachable and friendly. He/she displays concern for the well being and personal needs of the subordinates. He /She creates an emotionally supportive climate. This style is effective when subordinates lack self-confidence; work on dissatisfying or stressful tasks and when work does not provide work performance (Hoy and Miskel, 2001).
Achievement-Oriented Style
In this style, the leader sets challenging but achievable goals for the subordinates. He/she pushes work improvement, sets high expectations for subordinates and rewards them when the expectations are met. That is, the leader provides both high
directive (structure) and high supportive (consideration) behavior. This style works well with achievement-oriented subordinates (Lussier and Achua, 2001).
2.3.2 Autocratic Leadership Styles
Autocratic leadership refers to a system that gives full empowerment to the leader with minimal participation from the followers. Yukl (1994) found that, autocratic leaders tend to have the following five characteristics: they do not consult members of the organization in the decision-making process, the leaders set all policies, the leader predetermines the methods, the leader determines the duties of followers, and the leader specifies technical and performance evaluation standards. Since this style of leadership usually only involves one person deciding, it permits quick decision- making. Although the autocratic style is relatively unpopular, in certain circumstances it can be an effective strategy, especially when the leader is short on time and when followers are not productive.
2.3.3 Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles
Laissez-Faire leadership is when leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make the decisions. With this style, freedoms are fully determined by group goals, techniques, and working methods. Leaders rarely intervene. Laissez-faire style is described by Hackman and Johnson (2009) as the most effective style, especially where followers are mature and highly motivated. Laissez-faire leadership style allows complete freedom to group decision without the leader’s participation. Thus, subordinates are free to do what they like. The role of the leader is just to supply
materials. The leader does not interfere with or participate in the course of events determined by the group (Talbert and Milbrey, 1994).
2.4 Teacher’s Job Performance
According to Mullins (2002), subordinates need motivation, development and guidance in order to perform well in the right areas. The head teacher needs to understand on how to make work more satisfying for staff and to overcome obstacles to effective performance. The strength of performance management in education is located firmly in the work of Individual teachers. Fundamentally the paradigm for performance management is strong leadership and management (Tranter and Percival, 2004). Research has found out that the behavior of managers and their style of management will influence the effort expended and level of performance achieved by subordinate staff (Mullins, 2002).
A teacher is a dynamic force of the school. A school without a teacher is just like a body without the soul, a skeleton without flesh and blood and a shadow without a substance. To discharge their teaching work effectively teachers need to have a suitable and properly resource, working environment, need to be adequately compensated to increase their commitment to their duties, adequately informed to promote innovations, involving in decision making, well maintained and furnished school buildings as well as sufficient classroom materials and resources.
2.5 Theories that Guide the Study
Though the concept of leadership began to surface during the 1700s, scientific research on the topic did not begin until the 20th century (Bass, 1985). A number of
leadership theories were developed during the 20th century due to intensive research on the subject, addressing the construct of leadership from different perspectives. According to Bennis and Nanus (1985), all of the ambiguous and difficult areas in social psychology, leadership theory remains at the top, because more has been written and less known about leadership than about any other topic in the behavioral sciences. The following is a brief account for one of the leadership theories, which were developed over the years.
Path-Goal Theory
This study used the Path-Goal model, Path-Goal model is a theory based on specifying a leader's behavior that best fits the employee and work environment in order to achieve a goal (House and Mitchell, 1974). The goal is to increase employees' motivation, empowerment, and performance so they become productive members of the organization. Path-Goal is based on Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory, in which an individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The path-goal theory was first introduced by Evans (1970) and then further developed by House (1971). The path-goal theory can best be thought of as a process in which leaders select specific behaviors that are best suited to the employees' needs and the working environment so that they may best guide the employees through their path in the obtainment of their daily work activities (goals) (Northouse, 2013).
Figure 2.1 : The Basic Idea Behind Path-Goal Theory
Source: Northouse, (2013)
The leader shows the subordinates a clear path to follow and how to remove obstacles to the goal productivity by the following steps.
i. Determine the employee and environmental characteristics
ii. Select a leadership style
iii. Focus on motivational factors that will help the employee performance
Employee Characteristics
Employees interpret their leader's behavior based on their needs, such as the degree of structure they need, affiliation, perceived level of ability, and desire for control. For example, if a leader provides more structure than what they need, they become less motivated. Thus, a leader needs to understand their employees so they know the best way to motivate them. Overcoming obstacles is a special focus of path-goal theory. If an obstacle becomes too strong, then the leader needs to step in and help
the employee select a path to work around it. Some of the more difficult task characteristics that often arise are:
• Design of the task - The design of the task might call for the leader's support. For example, if the task is ambiguous, then the leader might have to give it more structure or an extremely difficult task might call for leader support.
• Formal authority system - Depending upon the task authority, the leader can provide clear goals and/or give the employee control.
• Work group - If the team is non-supportive, then the leader needs to be cohesiveness that provides enthusiasm, and devotion to all team members.
Leader’s Behavior
The independent variables of Path-Goal Theory are the leader's behavior. The leader adjusts her style of behavior to the employee and task characteristics so that the employee's motivation is to excel at their goal. House and Mitchell (1974) defined four types of leader behaviors or styles: Directive, Supportive, Participative, and Achievement (explained in detail below). These were based on two factors that were identified by an Ohio State University study behaviors (Stogdill, 1974). The factors are mentioned bellow.
• Consideration: relationship behaviors, such as respect and trust.
• Initiating Structure: task behaviors, such as organizing, scheduling, and seeing that work is completed.
The behaviors explained below were, Directive, which was based on initiating structure. While the other three (achievement, participative, and supportive) were based upon consideration. So the four path-goal types of leader behaviors are:
• Directive: The leader informs her followers on what is expected of them, such as telling them what to do, how to perform a task, and scheduling and coordinating work. It is most effective when people are unsure about the task or when there is a lot of uncertainty within the environment.
• Supportive: The leader makes work pleasant for the workers by showing concern for them and by being friendly and approachable. It is most effective in situations in which tasks and relationships are physically or psychologically challenging.
• Participative: The leader consults with his followers before making a decision on how to proceed. It is most effective when subordinates are highly trained and involved in their work.
• Achievement: The leader sets challenging goals for her followers, expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. It is most effective in professional work environments.
The researcher selected this path goal theory as relate to the study on the leaders' behavior and other leadership styles that may be used depending upon the situation. For example, House (1996) defined four other behaviors of Work Facilitation, Group Oriented Decision Process, Work Group Representation and Networking and Value Based. As noted earlier, the independent variables of Path-Goal Theory are the leaders' behavior, thus the path–goal theory assumes that people (leaders) are
flexible in that they can change their behavior or style, depending upon the situation. The leader’s job is to help subordinates reach their goals by directing, guiding, and coaching them along the way. Leaders must evaluate task and subordinate characteristics and adapt leadership style to these. Hence the theory suggests which style is most appropriate for specific characteristics.
Figure 2.2 : Summary of the Major Components of Path-Goal Theory
Source: (Northouse, 2013).
2.6 Empirical Studies
This section reviews some selected research work related to leadership in Tanzania and other outside the country. This review is important as Tayie (2005) noted that it provides information about what was done in the related filed, how it was done and what results were generated.
Adeyemi (2013), on the study of “Head Teachers’ Leadership Styles’ and Teachers Job Performance in Primary Schools” found that, the democratic style of leadership should be upheld and used by all head teachers’ of primary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria in their day to day administrative duties. Also head teachers’ of primary schools in State should continue to use the democratic leadership style by delegating authority to staff in order to facilitate better job performance among teachers in the schools.
Osabiya (2015), on the study of “The Impact of Leadership Style on Employee’s Performance in an Organization” found that, Democratic and pacesetting leadership style should be adopted as the democratic-style give room for employee participation in decision-making while pacesetting in situational leadership style. The organization should also formulate polices, which will encourage leaders to empower employees to be part owner of the organization.
Kawooya (2010), in the study of “Effect of Leadership Styles on Employee Performance in Kampala District Council” found that, the corporate leadership style in Kampala district council would further empower their employees by developing teams and according to some measure of power and authority to these teams. in this way, employees would ignite their potentials, feel part of the organization and perform maximally for the organization. Also it was important for the district council to reduce laissez-faire leadership by designing performance procedures that promote professional performance guidelines that create a sense of responsibility to employees.
Chirchir (2014), on the study of “Leadership Style and Teachers Commitment in Public Primary Schools in Bomet County, Kenya” found that, Teachers perceived their head teachers to practice transformational leadership more than transactional leadership approaches. This suggests that subordinate teachers perceived their head- teachers to display transformational leadership approaches more than transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles in running their schools.
Nguni et al (2006), studied on “Transformational leadership behaviors in both primary and secondary school settings in Tanzania”. The study findings showed that the group of transformational leadership behaviors had strong to moderate positive effects on value commitment, organizational citizenship behavior in primary schools.
Kashagate (2013), studies on “Influence of Leadership Style on Teachers’ Job Performance in Tanzania” has been found that, the study failed to collect sufficient data to support the theoretical frame work of the study which this study claimed to hold explanations about the influence of leadership style on teacher’s job performance in public secondary schools in Tanzania. so the study concludes that the frame work has shown some signs that can explain the problem and there is the need for the frame work to be tested in another area in Tanzania for further investigation on its explanatory power.
2.7 Research Gap
The literature reviews depicts that, the study was more established out of Tanzania. Since it was not yet well empirically established in the Tanzanian context. The study intended to fill the gap by focusing on primary schools from Tanzania. In that sense “An Assessment of the effects of Head teachers’ Leadership Style on Teachers’ Job Performance in Selected Primary Schools in Ado-Odo Ota LGA” had therefore employed. This study intended to assess the effects of head teachers’ leadership styles on teachers’ job performance in different area from the previously study.