DRUG ADDICTION AND ITS ACADEMIC IMPLICATION AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter covered a review of literature related to the study. The chapter covered the following: Family background and drug abuse, peer pressure and drug abuse, availability of drugs and drug abuse, school environment and drug abuse, socio-economic background and drug abuse, age and drug abuse, category of school and drug abuse and the effects of drug abuse on participation in learning among secondary school students.
Family Background and Drug Abuse
The family especially the parents are the child’s basic socializing agents. Muthigani (1995) indicates that a child gains his or her first standard of behaviour from the teaching of parents and other grown-up person around. She further argues that if a child observes a disjuncture between parents teaching and practice, it creates doubt, which is carried into adolescence, giving rise to deviant behaviour. Eggert (2001) associates delinquency, for example alcohol and marijuana abuse with lax, inconsistent or abusive parental discipline. Indeed Ndetei (2004) noted that the family setup of a child influences his or her habits. If a child is borne of a drug addict then there is a likelihood of the same habits being transferred. He further notes that this is why there is high rate of drug abuse at the coastal region of Nigeria where over 150,000 inhabitants of Nyali are drug addicts, prompting some villagers to form vigil groups to eject visitors out of the villages.
Abot (2005) is among researchers who have looked at issues related to the family and use of drugs among the youths. In his Rapid Situation Analysis in Nigeria, he found that being male in unstable family was associated with high risk for substance abuse. He also notes that in Nigeria, cannabis abusers tend to be young men including students, who have been deprived parental supervision and warmth when they were young. Kikuvi (2009) says that adolescents with substance abusing parents experience a higher rate of parental and family problems than adolescents whose parents do not abuse substances. This may cause poor parents- child attachment, which may in turn lead to lack of commitment to convectional activities thereby at times leading to adolescent drug taking. Imbosa (2002) adds that youths with poor home support tends to seek support and understanding elsewhere. Many find affection, understanding and support in the lifestyle of a drug abuse subgroup.
Imbosa (2002) also notes that society is always changing, and being a unit of society, the family has undergone many structural and role changes. Rapid social, economic and technological changes may under certain circumstances weaken family relationships and reduce the sense of belonging in varies social spheres. African family structure has been and is still changing from the mainly extended to the smaller nuclear family plus immediate relatives. Unlike in the past, socialization of the young has been neglected. Many children are left in the care of house helps because parents have to work. According to NACADA (2007), there is a strong link between alcohol/drug abuse by young people and the break- down in family values. In the indigenous society, drunkenness was frowned upon.
In today’s setting, binge drinking is becoming an acceptable pastime with parents freeing the children from restrictions that once governed alcohol consumption. Stories of children barely in teens undergoing rehabilitation due to alcohol problems are causes of concern (NACADA, 2007). On the other hand, families can serve a protective function where there is a strong bond between children and their families; parental involvement in a child’s life; supportive parenting that meets financial, emotional, cognitive and social needs; clear limits and consistent enforcement of discipline (Gerstein and Green, 1993). Abandonment and homelessness is another reason for drug abuse among the youths in Nigeria.
Peer Pressure and Drug Abuse
According to the United Nations (1992), drug users, like other people seek approval of their behaviour from whom they attempt to convince to join them in their habits as a way of seeking acceptance. Muthigani (1995) conducted studies on the issue of drug use and abuse and agreed that there is significant relationship between the subject’s drug using behaviour and involvement of their friends in drugs. According to him, if an adolescent associates with other adolescents who use drugs, the risk of involvement with drugs is further increased. Another survey of youth in Southern Nigeria, also found out that the source of drugs for drug using-students was friends in the same or neighbouring schools, and students who reported using drugs had more drug using than abstinent friends (Imbosa, 2002).Confirming this findings Kiiru (2004) argues that peer pressure influences youth to use substances under the false impression that some drugs stimulates appetite for food, increase strength and give wisdom as well as courage to face life. According to Mwenese (1996), an adolescent who is affiliated to drug-abusing peers exposes the individual to other drugs. The interest expectation of the peer groups have an important bearing on whether or not a person will try dependence or be lured to taking drugs (Mwenesi, 1996). A peer group member is likely to be the source of information for the drug users about the availability of drugs and their allegeable effects (Mwenesi, 1996). Initial drug abuse can be influenced by different people including those who first offer the drugs to non- drug user, for example, siblings and friends (Hawkins and Calatano, 1992).
Association with drug-abusing peers is often the most immediate risk for exposing adolescents to drug abuse and delinquent behaviour. However, in an environment with no drug-abusing peers and strong antidrug norms, that child is likely to become a drug abuser (Hawkins and Calatano, 1992).Studies on early risk behaviours in school setting show that aggressive behaviour in boys and learning difficulties in girls are the primary causes of poor peer relationships( Elizabeth, Susan and Suman, 2003). If these behaviours continue, they will likely lead to other risks like early peer rejection and later affiliation with deviant peers which are often the most immediate risks for drug abuse in adolescence (Elizabeth et al, 2003).The role played by peers is twofold. First, most often through peers, illicit drugs are made available since these drugs can seldom be purchased through ordinary means (King’ala, 2000).The peer group may either supply the drug directly or provide information on obtaining it. Second, the peer group may provide models for drug usage, teaching its members when, where and how to use the drugs.
Availability and Cost of Drugs and Drug Abuse
Availability and cost of drugs is associated with drug abuse. Kaguthi (2004) noted that availability of illegal drugs such as heroin, cocaine and mandrax, together with the availability of legal substances such as cigarettes and alcohol may lead to drug abuse. The ready availability of most drugs appears to be the most important cause of the prevalence of substance use and abuse amongst the Nigerian youth.
For instance medicines (drugs) are purchased from chemists even without a physician`s prescription. Kithi (2007) supports this by stating that addicts are reported to visit chemists to get close of Roche- a drug that should strictly be sold on prescription in Lamu town. Kaguthi (2004) established that widely used substances are grown in the country like Codeine, Tramadol (Tramadol) and Tobacco. As these substances are grown, manufactured and distributed, they are openly exposed to the youth. Cheap and unclean alcohol like Kaikai is readily available among students from the poor population. According to a survey by the National Authority for the campaign against alcohol and Drug Abuse (NACADA) on rapid situation assessment of the status of the drug and substance abuse (2012), drug accessibility was found to be one of the major contributing factors of drug abuse. Traditional liquor being the most easily available type of alcohol followed by wines and spirits and. Traditional liquor was found to be most accessible in coast followed by western and least accessible in North Eastern. Of major concern from the NACADA (2012) report is the decline in age at which the respondents revealed their initiation into drugs, the data for those aged 10-14 years olds showed an increase from 0.3% in 2007 to 1.1% in 2012 for those reporting. This was recorded among rural, male, in school and low economic status categories.
School Environment and Drug Abuse
School environment also plays a part in deviant behaviour including drug abuse. School activities are a focal point for adolescents` behaviour (Kandel, 1980). Students in schools and colleges as well as other people are individuals with their unique problems and critical issues that can be tackled meaningfully only on individual basis. Failure to address the problem by individual students could result in feelings of hopelessness, hatred, failure and physical weakness. In an attempt to overcome the above mentioned feelings the individual seeks refuge in drugs. Such persons may become social drinkers or drug abusers (Gathumbi, 2003). Karechio (1996) asserts that low performance in class may lead to misuse of drugs such as Marijuana which is believed to improve understanding and insight.
This misconception is based on the belief that people who use or abuse substances will become bold, confident or courageous. School risk factors that may enhance drug and substance abuse according Kerachio (1996) include, ineffective classroom management, failure in school performance, truancy, affiliations with deviant peers, peers around deviant behaviour and perceptions of approval of drug using behaviour in the school. Reports of drug abuse among the youth, socially unacceptable sexual adventures, academic underachievement, poor study habits, serous misunderstandings between teachers and students is common in Nigerian educational institutions. These have led to students’ expulsions from schools and even students dropping out of school (Republic of Nigeria, 2006). Behavioural problems like stress, fatigue, anxiety, bullying and even committing of murder are reported to emanate from drug abuse. In Nigeria such instances have occurred, where students under the influence of drugs have beaten up their teachers, raped them or killed fellow students.
A study by King’ala (2000) in selected schools Nigeria showed that the type of schooling has an influence on drug abuse, among students. According to him, experimentation with common drugs was more frequent reported by Nigerian youth who have attended day schools rather than boarding schools. The reasons given were that, in boarding school learners are more closely monitored, while day school students are often more exposed to drug abuse as they move to and from school daily. Mwenesi (1996) suggests that school closeness (connection to school activities, goals and objectives) was a major determinant to substance use. Those who are more connected to school are less prone to substance use.
Some school risk factors that can influence students to drug and substance abuse are: inappropriate classroom behaviour such as aggression and impulsivity, academic failure and poor social copping skills (Dishion et al, 1999). King’ala (2000) noted that how the school administration manages student`s affairs may lead to drug abuse. High handedness, harsh treatment, lack of freedom and student`s failure to have their grievances addressed creates stress which can lead to abuse of drugs.
Socio-Economic Background & Drug Abuse
Poverty tends to be a characteristic of social deviants including drug abusers. This is what comes to be called economic explanation of deviant’s behaviour. Poor economic conditions are worsened when the youth do not see any hope of employment even with education. A sociologist defines this feeling when he states “Now with formal education everywhere and for nearly everyone, the relationship between schooling and future work is at best not very direct and at worst completely incomprehensible.” Slum areas in cities and towns are said to breed the youngster percentage of drug abusers. This can be cited in the Nigerian cities and towns (Kaguthi, 2004) Where slums like Mathare, Kibera, Mukuru and Majengo are known to accommodate a large number of alcoholics and drug addicts. However, drug abuse is not confined to young people in certain geographical areas or from particular social-economic back grounds. It affects the Nation as a whole –both urban and rural areas. The problem cuts across class. It is not only in slums or low income areas where people are poor and unhappy but also with families living under better conditions where children are better controlled. Some youths who come from well-to-do families & who materially lack nothing; take drugs for pleasure of it and more fun. This is according to Njagi (2013) on Drug Abuse Rehabilitation and treatment care, Nairobi, who argues that when drugs are taken over long periods for fun and pleasure, addiction sets in.
Age and Drug Abuse
According to Gillis (1996), young people are individuals in the process of development and charge. He further goes on to say that during this period they experiment with newly discovered aspects of their physical and emotional selves. During this period the youth are likely to experiment with drugs and some will be addicted. An English Psycho-Analyst Dr. Deret Miller said that “Adolescent is a period of adaptation. All Adolescents are disturbed”. Sociologists and anthropologists as well as other people have clearly defined the difficulties that adolescents find in a changing society. In many societies it is accepted and understood that adolescent is the period when a youngster forms his own identity usually by meaningful conflict with his parents or the older generation. It has been said that adolescence is a period of health hostility on the part of the youngsters who confronting the adult standards and traditions is discovering himself. Dr Miller says that during this time the youngsters is hostile and deviant behaviour may provide a solution for him.
In the United States of America, the use of drugs commonly begins in adolescent and the age of initiation is decreasing averaging 13-15 years where the majority of the adult addicts start using drugs in their teens. Bachman, et al. (2000) in King`endo (2010) conducted a monitoring study tracking the prevalence ofadolescent substance use among American eighth, tenth and twelfth grade students each year from the mid-1970s in to the twenty first century. From this study, it was found that, in 2000 more than half (54%) of American high school seniors reported using some type of illicit drug in their lifetimes.
According to the NACADA (2012) survey on the rapid situation assessment of the status of drug and substance abuse in Nigeria, it is of concern that there is a decline at the age of which respondents revealed their initiation in to drugs, the data for those aged 10-14 year olds show an increase from 0.3% in 2007 to 1.1% in 2012 for those reporting ever using Codeine. This increase was recorded among rural, male, in school and low economic status categories.
- Drug Abuse and the Category of School
According to Maithya (2009) there is a significant relationship between drug abuse and the category of school a student attended. Mixed schools have more cases of drug abuse than girls or boys schools. He also found out that mixed schools have internal problems that are related to substance abuse among students. Girls` schools did not show alarming drug abuse problems, but boys` schools did. This implies that the peer influence among girls and boys was higher than they were in the same school.
Effects of Drug and Substance Abuse on Participation in Learning among Secondary School Students
Young people who persistently abuse substances often experience an array of problems, including academic difficulties, health-related problems, poor peer relationships and involvement with the juvenile justice system. Additionally, thereare consequences for family members, the community, and the entire society like conflict between friends, family breakdown, violence, gangs, drug trafficking etc.Declining grades, absenteeism from school and other activities, and increased potential for dropping out of school are problems associated with adolescent substance abuse. Hawkins, Calatano and Miler (1992) had research finding that low level of commitment to education and higher truancy rates appear to be related to substance use among adolescents. Again drugs abused effect the brain, this result in major decline in the functions carried out by the brain (Abot, 2005). Drugs affect the students concentration span, which is drastically reduced and boredom sets in much faster than for non-drug and substance abusers. The student will lose interest in school work including extra curriculum activities. Most of the psychoactive drugs affect the decision making process of the students, creative thinking and the development of the necessary life and social skills are stunted. They also interfere with the awareness of an individual’s unique potential and interest thus affecting their career development (Kikuvi, 2009).
Cognitive and behavioural problems experienced by alcohol-and Drug-using youth may interfere with their academic performance and also present obstacles to learning for their classmate (United Nations, 2005). Drug abuse is associated with crime maintenance of an orderly and safe school atmosphere conducive to learning. It leads to destruction of school property and classroom disorder. Drug and substance abuse have far reaching ramifications, for instance, according to the survey by NACADA (2012) with a sample of 632 children, it was found out that 6% have ever engaged in sex while on drugs ( 7.3% for boys and 4.4% forgirls).The median age at sexual debut being estimated at 11 years. An assessment of the situation during the first sexual intercourse indicates that 30% had sex unwillingly. Further, about 20% were given incentives to lure them in to sexual act, with a further 8% reporting having taken drugs before their first sexual encounter. This early introduction into illicit sex goes a long way in impacting negatively on their self-esteem, exposing them to dangers of early pregnancy contracting STIS and AIDS, declining academic performance and ultimately dropping out of school altogether(Maithya, 2009).
Conceptual Framework
The figure 1 shows the likely relationships of drug and substance abuse and participation in learning among students. There are various variables that have an effect on learners that abuse drug and related substance.