EFFECT OF CULTISM AMONG STUDENT’S OF TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual Framework
Concept of Cultism
It has never been easy to give a comprehensive definition of the term ‘Cult’. This is because the term cultism could be applied to a wide range of groups and could convey different meaning by different users. Okwu (2006) cited Denga (1991) where the author defined cultism as a system of religious belief and practices or ideology. Also, Orukpe (1998) noted that ‘Cults are a group of people who share and propagate peculiar secret beliefs divulged only to Member’.
Occultism or possession of mystical power is often associated with cults. The veracity of this is difficult to ascertain because of their secret modus operandi. Cult can be seen as a group of people that are devoted to a particular cause. In real sense cult per se is not evil, it is rather the anti-societal behaviour of its members that make it to be evil and a cause of concern to society.
According to the Free Encyclopedia (2010), the literal and traditional meaning of the word ‘Cult’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Cultus’ meaning ‘Care’ or ‘Adoration’. To the sociologist of religion, the term is used to describe ‘a loosely knit organization not characterized by tolerance and open mindedness in matter of belief and practice, while in the media and everyday conversion the word suggests a spurious, secretive, sinister and harmful group’ (Albatross , 2006). Lalich and Langone (2006) made the following remarks about the behaviour of cultists – the group displays excessively zealous and unquestionable commitment to its leader and regards his belief system, ideology and practices as the truth. The authors noted that questioning, doubts and dissents are discouraged or even punished.
Rotimi (2005) asserted that the secret cult phenomenon is not new in
Africa. Citing Aguda (1997), the author observed that activities of secret cults, like ‘Human Leopards’ and ‘Human crocodiles’, have been recorded in Central Africa. Furthermore in citing Thomas (2002), the author stated that cultist groups enjoy subtle support and patronage from both government and school authorities. Cult members were sometimes used by politicians for revenge and for setting personal scores. He went on to state that in some cases, past members who had migrated to foreign countries some times remitted money to support their former cult groups.
Campus Cultism
Cultism is an anti-social behaviour which is a deviant act. It is at variance with the established norms of behaviour. It is a non-conforming behaviour which usually contravenes the social rules of an institution in particular and the society in general. In spite of the negative consequences of cultism, it still thrives. Literature showed that secret societies have a mode of operation and behaviour by which they can identify as not only groups but secret groups.
According to the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Enactment) Decree 1978 … “A secret society means a cultural or association, not being solely secret signs, oaths, rites or symbols whose meetings are under oath, obligation to promote the interest of its members or to aid one another under all circumstances without due regard to merit, fair play or justice, to the detriment of the legitimate expectation of those who are not members.” The nature of secret cults is as much practicable shrouded in secrecy by members. This fact was appreciated by Nwanze (1991 and 1994). They observed that they all shared one thing in common. They operated secretly and their activities and sign were decidedly esoteric to the uninitiated.
Okorie, et al (1991) gave two classes of entrants into the societies. One group is those who were lured into the societies by the enormous conception for their nature. The second group comprises those who are conscripted through trickery, threat and blackmail in view of the expected gains; such as protection, which the society will make from such persons membership.
Nwanze (1991) reported the initiation process of the Buccaneers at Awka, he said the initiates are stripped to the pant. While a bonfire of tyres was on, the new initiates were being flogged with horse whip; none was placed on the fire until it became red. It was later used to give small marks at some parts of the bodies of the new intakes. He went on to give discuss the initiation process in Bendel State high institutions. It took place at the burial grounds. Here, human skulls are used at the dead of the night.
It is apparent that the procedures of initiation as described above differ between cults. The similarities between them are that they are rigorous, gruesome and night bound. Other characteristics of secret societies identified by Usen, et al (1990) are that members used drugs like “Indian hemp” and “Chinese capsule” to get themselves on top of the world. They use weapons and various injurious instruments. They include firearms, daggers, and axes and acid. Okorie (1991), Ezennah (1992) and Olabisi (1993) added machete, sword and live grenade to the
list.
In addition to these, Nwanze (1991) did not lose sight of objectives. He said those with poor academic records and those who gain admission through dubious means join for academic protection which they get from cult. Others with political ambitions join to use cult link to get elected into offices of campus politics. Others use it as a means to get through to the best girls in the campus, while others join due to economic reasons. He said members are their brothers’ keeper by lending money to colleagues or buy food items for them.
This section has shown that secrecy is the sole mode of operation of secret societies. According to the review, the societies achieve the required secrecy by members acting under nicknames, in darkness and odd places where faces are not known. They subject members to oath of secrecy at initiation. They also use intoxicating drugs and dangerous weapons for their operation. Their objectives are also not based on nobility.
The origin of what metamorphosed into secret cults in our tertiary institutions started in 1952 as stated in the National Association of Seadogs Handbook (1993, 2). According to this source, it was founded at the University College, Ibadan, now University of Ibadan by what they called seven ash coated weather beaten and time tested ‘Seadogs’. Their names were listed as follows: Wole Soyinka, Ralph Okpara, Pius Oleghe, Frank Aig Imoukheude, Nathaniel Oyelola, Olumuyiwa Awe and Ben Egbuche.
This was further supported by Ohaeto (1990) when he traced its origin to the proscription of a group called ‘Pyrates Confraternity’ in the late 1970s. He quoted one of the founding members, Olumuyiwa Awe, as dating the origin of the confraternity to 1952 with Wole Soyinka as the first captain. The basement rooms below Tedder Hall at University of Ibadan, served as their “core”. The ban on the confraternity led to the formation of several other groups that go in varying names. Chioma (1991), Mgbagwu (1990), Nwanze (1994), Akpan (1990) listed their names:
The Buccaneer, Pyrates, Black Axe, Seadogs, Black Barret, Green Barret, Viking, Neoblack Movement, the Musketeers, the Trojan Horse, the Temple of Eden, the Mafios, the Osiri, the Black Cat and the National Seadogs student Fraternity, Owegbe, Awo Atinge, Ayambua, Ekpe-Ikpa Ukot and Idiong, the Rosicrucians and Odd Fellows, Marpnites, Amazons (All female), Burkina Faso Revolutuon, Scorpion, K.K.K, Eiye Fraternity, Cobra, Bees International, Barracudas, Himalayas, Dragons, Nalphites, Red Barret, Mafia, Mgba Brothers, Agba Sects, Children of Judah, the Ekpo, Family Fraternity, Norsemen, the Red Devil and Blood Spot, etc.
Ohaeto reported that Wole Soyinka referred to these as break away groups thrown out of Pyrates for being drug addicts, rapists, robbers, and those who could go and pour acid on women for refusing love advances.
Gibbs (1990) referred to the founding fathers as the “Magnificent Seven”, while Ogbodo, Oduenyi and Otuya (1991a) and Olabisi (1993) referred to them as the “Original Seven” of the Pyrates. They also hold the view that other cults prevalent in our tertiary institutions today are offspring of the original Pyrates confraternity. According to the information gathered from the Handbook of the National Association of Seadogs (1993: 3), Pyrates confraternity was reorganized and properly directed with a proper leadership structure, and the composition of the Supreme Pyrates Council (a central coordinating body) spelt out and adopted in April 14/10/1978. Then the Pyrates confraternity was formerly registered with the Federal Ministry of International Affairs under the land (perpetual and succession) Act Cap. 98, by the trustees under the caption of National Association of Seadogs (NAS) in 1980. It went further to state that due to violent encounters student members were having with other rivalry clubs; a decision was taken in July 1984 to ban the activities of Pyrates on campuses. According to Agunloye in Ogbodo, et al (1991a and b), this ban was imposed in 1987. Since then, even student members of the National Association of Seadogs are not allowed to carry out their activities within the campuses but outside.
On what informed the founding of Pyrates confraternity, as stated in the National Association of Seadogs Handbook (1993: 4), they had an original scroll which is still in existence in what they called “Pyrates Treasure Chest”, upon which were written under objectives. Prominent among the objectives were:
Fight moribund convention
Destroy this Barmy Party System in the country where it is taking to
tribalism.
Rid this Rum Old country of the Mane of conservation.
Revive the Age of chivalry.
Gibbs (1990) in an exhortation of the editor of then Pyrates magazine “The
Criterion”, following what he regarded as welcome political development on the University College, Ibadan campus, expatiated on these objectives and said one of these objectives was that the country must be rid of the draconian rule.
Furthermore, Tunji Tubi was reported in Ogbodo, et al (1991a) as saying that the social ills and conformist degradation, which were exhibited not only by the students but also by the society at large. At that time, the Pyrates had ideals that were humanistic and tribalism. They saw themselves as the policemen of the campus. Like Olu Agunloye in Ogbodo, et al (1991b), he illustrated this with how Pyrates stepped in and resolved amicable a students’ protest over the construction of a railway close to the University College, Ibadan campus. Olabisi (1993) also reported Wole Soyinka as saying that Pyrates were established to act as correction, reformatory and taming center for members, so they could act as shining examples to other students within the campus. He further said it was formed to act as unofficial organ of the students against any forms of oppression or victimization by the University authorities.
The foregoing showed that secret cults started to operate in Nigerian tertiary institutions about 1952, fifty nine years ago. The first of such was the Pyrates confraternity formed at the University College, Ibadan. From the above revelations, it can be deduced that behind the emergence of the early cult, there was the spirit of Nationalism and Patriotism. Other cults prevalent in our contemporary university are offspring of Pyrates confraternity.
Cultism is an anti-social behaviour which is a deviant act. It is at variance with the established norms of behaviour. It is a non-conforming behaviour which usually contravenes the social rules of an institution in particular and the society in general. In spite of the negative consequences of cultism, it still thrives. Factors responsible for this are identified as some of the causes of cultism.
Parental and Home Background is a major factor when considering the cause of students’ joining campus cults. Student’s participation in cult activities may be influenced by parent’s involvement in similar activities; parents who are members of secret cult will not see anything wrong in their children’s involvement in cultism. Parents may encourage their children to join cults so that they may maintain the traditional titles that have been given to them (that is parents). Children from broken homes may also find solace in cultism. A home that is characterized by child abuse, intolerance, violence, insecurity and hostility may be a breeding ground for prospective cult members.
The Society is another cause of cultism in Nigerian tertiary institutions of learning. The Nigerian adult society is materialistic. There is the mad ambition for wealth and power. Some powerful members of the society sometimes unleash terror on the other members of the society. Some of them recruit young adults to perpetrate heinous crimes in the society and can erase the long arms of the law. They are the fraudsters, kidnappers, ritual killers, etc. children who grow in this kind of environment may see nothing wrong in cult activities that involve maiming and killing of innocent people. “Godfathers” who are ready to protect cultists from prosecution sponsor cult activities.
More so, emotional sickness contributes to the causes of cultism in higher institutions of learning in Nigeria. Children who have emotional sickness tend to be frustrated and fed up with life. In an attempt to express their anger against neglect, they may join cults to unleash terror on the society that has caused them emotional distress. Some children are possessed by the demon. Those children can grow up to become criminals because of the evil spirit in them.
Social Problems Associated with Campus Cultism
Some problems have been identified as encouraging the existence of secret
cults in our tertiary institutions.
An opinion in the Pilgrim Magazine (March, 1998) discussed the motivating factor of secret societies from a psychological perspective. Psychologists believed that adolescent is a period of crisis. This is so to the extent that the adolescent at this stage of tremendous physical and mental maturity is even confused about himself. In imagination, the adolescents are omnipotent but impotent in action. They soon get awakened to the imperfection and hypocrisy of the adult world which they freely criticize and reject out of non-engagement or non-commitment. This opinion reasoned that in this state and stage, a child might turn into a deviant if he fails to receive good directives from the parents. A nonconformist, thus he looks for his types. To survive, they form a clique totally committed to evil propagation. Quite cognizance of their actions they live in fears, become nocturnal with ritual sacrifices and social violence as their stock in trade. In addition to these, Ugbendu in Olabisi (1993) explained that most new intakes in higher institutions belong to the adolescent age bracket, a stage they are subjected to psychological fluctuations, while searching for their personalities. In their search he explained, the influence of their peers are paramount. Thus, many intakes to the campuses are lured into secret cults by the peers who are already members. It was in this understanding of age as a factor contributing to the incidents of campus cult probably that the presiding judge, A. I. Obiesie, in his sentences at the trial of some University of Nigeria, Nsukka students engaged in secret cult activities ref – charge No. MOT/AN/9C/91 said:
In passing sentence, one must realize that “young persons” will be young persons no matter whether they are in higher institutions or not. The 4th accused who is the oldest is only 23 years old; while each of the others 21. Allowance must be made for exuberance or youthful exuberance that is bound with youths… (Obiesie, 1991).
Another psychological phenomenon mentioned by Omoluabi in Olabisi (1993) is what he called “Affiliation Need” which prompt students to form or join these cults. He said that affiliation and belonging drive them to join these cults to assess their worth and evaluate their self identity within the group. He further observed that the use of secrecy by members is to cast an aura of myth around the society thereby striking fears, dreaded and anxiety into non-members, thus, boosting their ego in the academic society.
Another author, Ihejietoh (1990) also holds the view that suspension, rustication and proscription of cult members and various cults is one of the factors that motivate the existence of cults in our tertiary institutions. He said that the approach is negative and as such it begets violence and aggression.
Clamping down on cults and student union as upheld by Kolo (1994) also increases the actions. He said the Abisoye panel of 1986/87 that was set to look into students’ riot in higher institutions came up with the suggestions that students meetings, congress, gathering, public meetings should be banned. He explains that when open meetings were clamped down, students decided to meet in the secret – this he said led to the eruption of campus cults. He said too clamping down in our individual homes lead to rebellion.
Lack of elaborate orientation programme for new entrants as identified by Ugbendu in Olabisi (1993) is one of the factors. He observed that most members were recruited as fresher, were the evils of campus cults and the havoc they wreck on fellow students are highlighted, fresher do not have vital information, thus they are lured into these cults as novices. This was supported by Omosuku (1993) in his own story. Olukoya (1994) identified faulty admission system as one of the factors that motivate the occurrence of campus cults. He cited the case of University of Jos (UNIJOS). He said admission that is based not on merit but on highest bidder. Cult members expelled from other institutions find it rather easy to get into the institution after purchasing admission. Olu Agunloye answering a question in Ogbodo, et al (1991b) also blamed admission policy for prevalence of secret cults. He lamented that nobody paid attention to how many armed robbers that have been offered admission into the universities.
Another factor is poor infrastructure (inadequate hostel accommodation, poor library facilities and recreational equipment). Ohaeto (1990) while discussing this factor explained that the volatility of students is aided by the deterioration of the higher education institution in terms of infrastructure, academic standard and quality of students. Accommodation constructed for limited number of student prior to population explosion in campus are dilapidated, and most lecture rooms have lost their windows leaving students and lecturer to the mercy of what he called the “elements”. Lecturers have too little space for collecting and organizing their thoughts. He argued that consequent upon this situation, too little time is devoted to the university’s basic function – the transmission of knowledge.
Also, Ujo (1994) supported this view in his publication. He explained that, if students have good academic environment, the tendency towards crises would be reduced. On the other hand, if the academic environment is poor, every little problem would be exploited by students to create confusion. Also an opinion in Daily Newspaper (March 14, 2000) upholds this view. It observed that a situation where students lack basic facilities for studies and recreation leave room for idleness and a resort to primitive and devilish practices.
Control of Campus Cult Activities
Divers views have been given and several actions taken towards controlling secret cults and their destabilizing activities in the nations’ tertiary institutions. Olukoya (1997), reported the resolution of buccaneers after meeting, that the Federal Government should be pressurized to allow campus cults to register with the university authorities to enable them operate openly. He quotes a member of the cult as saying “when this is done, it will be easy to identify those causing trouble on campuses”. Concerned university administrators, sociologists, psychologists, criminologists, jurist, parents and students were said to be caught in the vortex of the problem. Many tend to say that “violence begets violence, let us give them a dose of their own medicine”. This stance was being implemented in some campuses such as University of Lagos, Yabba (UNILAG), Imo State University, Okigwe (IMSU), where culprits were hunted, paraded naked in female hostels, in some case beaten and bruised before being handed over to the police. Casmir Chuks Ani, and ardent supporter of this stance, believed that Wole Soyinka, who founded the Seadogs, must have an idea about how to chain the mad dogs.
There was the case of three institutions; University of Calabar, Calabar (UNICAL), Calabar Polytechnic and Imo State University (IMSU) dismissing fifty (50) members of the undergraduate gangs in a breath of three weeks. The institutions probably acted in fulfillment of the dictates of Section 3, Subsection
(1) of Decree 47 of 1989 that:
The minister may, as from the commencement of this Decree, whenever he is of the opinion that public interest or public safety so demands, suspend for any specified period of time, remove, withdraw or expel any student (whether undergraduates, postgraduate, or otherwise) from any university institution of higher learning or similar institutions. And with powers conferred on the Minister in this subsection exercised by, as in sub-section 2 (b) of the section.
Surprise check on students was ordered by Grace Alele Williams, the then Vice-chancellor of Benin University. Three guns were recovered from the boy’s hostel. Formation of vigilante groups was tried out in the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. This failed as the gang clashes and warfare escalated. But Obi (1990) describing it as medieval practice, mentioned also the formation of vigilante groups in Cross Rivers and Akwa Ibom States.
Olukoya (1994) reported the president of the National Association of Nigerian Students (NANS), Nasser Ja’far, as saying that only the use of such unorthodox method can wipe out secret cult activities in campuses. He said, since cult members are exploiting the loopholes created by an inefficient State Security Department and are also in possession of lethal weapons, only force and mass action can dislodge the perpetrators. Okorie, et al (1991) reported the opinion expressed by some individuals and efforts made by the University of Nigeria, Nsukka to curtail cult violence in the campuses.
.
Theoretical Framework
The Behavioural Theory
Behaviourism also called the learning perspective, where any physical action is a behaviour, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition, that all things that organisms do including acting, thinking and feeling can and should be regarded as behaviours. The theory used in this study is B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory. The behaviourist school of thought maintains that behaviour as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind. Behaviourism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes such as actions and privately observable processes such as thinking and feeling.
In this study, B.F. Skinner’s behaviourism is considered radical since it expands behavioural principles to processes within the organism. B.F. Skinner who emphasized behaviour or responses (operants) that are learned because they followed by reinforcers, as food or praise, increase the likelihood of the response it follows. The emphasis throughout the approach is on specific overt behaviours that can be altered or changed by means of reinforcers. He advocated behaviour modification, which seeks to change behaviour by the systematic application of learning principles, using his operant conditioning theory. This method focuses on specific behaviours rather than general personality characteristics or underlying conflicts. Complex behaviours are developed out of the reinforced building up of simpler behaviours.
Skinner’s view of behaviour is most often characterized as a molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner’s complete description of behaviour as delineated in other works. Behaviourism is concerned with observable behaviour of human beings. Although divergences exist in the specifics of behavioural viewpoints but the general consensus is that most man’s behaviour is learned and therefore can be unlearned hence living is learning and it is a life long process. A child starts learning as soon as he is born. As the individual interacts with his environment, new knowledge is acquired through experiences. In addition to this, Ugbendu in Olabisi (1993) explained that most new intakes in higher institutions belong to the adolescent age bracket, a stage they are subjected to psychological fluctuations, while searching for their personalities. In their search he explained, the influence of their peers are paramount.
Explaining further, Skinner (1969) in Egbule (2000) holds that learning involves three identified stages namely: the stimulus or the learning task, which the learner is confronted with, the behaviour that is elicited or the skill that is learnt, and the reinforcement which follows that behaviour. It is for this reason that most human behaviour and actions are learned and therefore subject to change. It is for this reason that behaviour therapists propounded that behaviours should be measured in terms of what one can see, hear and count in order to know the specific and measurable causes of these behaviours (Watson, 1913).
In addition, the frontiers of knowledge of behaviour theory were expanded to include internal reinforcements like thoughts and emotions in the stability of such behaviour in an individual. In other words, the internal reinforcement helps to maintain and sustain the external rewards and punishments (Bandura, 1971). Rogers (1976) maintained that the differing concentrations of androgens in males and females cannot explain human sex differences in sexual and aggressive behaviour. In line with the view of Rogers above, Money (1997) stressed that biological factors do not themselves produce differences in male and female behaviour. This may mean that gender identities are the conceptions individuals have of themselves of being male or female through early and sustained imitation of adult behaviour. Our social environment provides us with sex-typed conceptions and stereotypes. What Money is pointing to is that the individual is essentially neutral at birth and that biological differences alone could be sufficient to account for later male and female differences in gender identities but could affect the threshold for the elicitation of such behaviour.
For the fact that all behaviours are learned, it can equally be unlearned through the help of a professional individual. Though according to Rogers, that human beings are endowed with all goodness, still maintains that environment can change human beings. As those fresher men/new intakes get to the higher institutions of learning, without proper directives as in organizing orientation programs may tend to fall into the hands of these cultist, this is because the environment is strange to them and can be humiliated easily.
Review of related Empirical Studies
Bawa (2008) investigated causes of campus cultism in Nigerian Universities. The study was limited to Universities in South Western Nigeria. Adopting a purposive random technique, four universities were used for the study.
They are University of Lagos (UNILAG), University of Ibadan, Obafemi
University, Ile Ife and Lagos State University (LASU). The sample comprised four hundred (400) students and one hundred (100) lecturers randomly selected from the four university. Questionnaire was the major instrument used to obtain relevant information from the respondents. Mean scores was used to answer the research questions. The major findings of the causes of campus cultism were to secure girls friends, seek financial assistance, easy access to high grades in examination, sheer curiosity, power and inordinate ambition. Parents and counsellors must internalise these causes and guide their wards properly to avoid the social problems associated with campus cultism.
Okere (2003) investigated family socio-economic status and students’ cultism in Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT). Two hundred and fifty (250) students (male and female) randomly drawn from the faculties of Engineering, Law and Education were used for the study. The instrument for data collection was the Students’ Behaviour Inventory (SBI) by Rutter (1987). Data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviations and ‘t’ test statistics. Among the findings were that some big men in the corridors of power supply guns to their sons and daughters who are cult members and that police cannot take actions because of the positions of their parents. It was also found that the guns, knives, axes and other destructive weapons cult student in Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) used in some of their ‘hits’ were supplied by members who graduated before them. Usually, according to the finding, they are children of persons in society who are well connected. This goes to prove that even some parents are the cause of the social problems arising from campus cultism.
Earlier, Onyeyido (2002) carried out an investigation on campus cults as perceived by students and lecturers in tertiary institutions in Rivers State. The University of Port Harcourt and the University of Science and Technology,
Nkpolu, Port Harcourt were the areas of study. One hundred and seventy lecturers (170) and two hundred and three (203) students from the two campuses were randomly selected as respondents for this study. Four hundred questionnaires were distributed to the respondents to indicate their opinions on a four point Likert scale.
Based on the findings and implications, the following recommendations were made; that parents should discipline their children from childhood, university and government authorities through the assistance of guidance and counselling units or guidance counsellors should use corrective measures like giving culprits psychological rehabilitation instead of the punitive measures they have been using which yielded no result. This will make them focus more on the individual not as he is but as he can be. This will minimize the tendency to join campus cult. The present work tends to find out social problems associated with campus cult activities in tertiary institutions in Ogun State while Onyejido study investigates into campus cults as perceived by students and lectures in Rivers State.