EFFECT OF INQUIRY TEACHING METHOD ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Empirical Review

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Enquiry Teaching Method

The inquiry method is trying to instill curiosity among individuals about something. This method requires a student to question the truth and accuracy of the information obtained. The importance of this method requires students to make sense of what they have learned. According to Beyer B.K, Inquiry is one way of making out of what we experience. It requires thinking it requires learners to make their meaning out of what they experience. ( Barry K.Beyer, 1971: 6). The philosophy of inquiry method is a process rather than content oriented. It is conceptual instead of factual emphasis. It is student-centered, not teacher-centered. It is active, not passive. (Barry K.Beyer, 1971)It can be explained that the inquiry method emphasizes four main aspects, namely, process oriented-not content, emphasis on concept-not facts, student-centered, and non-passive learning. The inquiry method also emphasizes reflective investigations and interesting findings in the teaching and learning process. What is emphasized in this method is that students no longer accept only what the teacher provides, but instead guide students to

learn the right information? What is important is that the inquiry method involves students as active thinkers, seekers, inquisitors, and processors of information gathered around them. This method is important for students to make decisions or find answers related to their guidance. In finding answers to problems, students need to use their thinking skills to find relevant evidence to conclude. The inquiry method also involves the process of reasoning. According to Atan Long, this process is a way of obtaining conclusions or drawing conclusions based on many examples or related methods found through observation and the collection of details or data. From the details of the examples, it is possible to conclude or form a concept on the matter. (Atan Long, 1980) Through this method, it is hoped that students can instill curiosity among them. Students will also try to get relevant information about a study or event when they first become interested in it. They will search for evidence, gather evidence, types of evidence, find relevant information, and eventually make generalizations. The importance of the inquiry method is to encourage students to use logical minds on issues, problems, or knowledge and apply the knowledge with the present situation. (Abdul Rahim Abdul Rashid, 1989) In general, the inquiry method has three important goals. The first is to identify the essential elements of intellectual inquiry. In this regard, we will look at what a person shows in solving a problem or the ability to answer questions with systematic thinking. Second, to reinforce the teaching strategies developed for the process. The goal is to find teaching strategies that can help create a framework for daily teaching and the preparation of units or courses of teaching. Third, to analyze some of the implications of using such strategies for teachers, classrooms, and curriculum appropriateness. (Abdul Rahim Abdul Rashid, 1989: 148)

ASPECTS OF PLANNING IN THE INQUIRY METHOD

Planning Behavioral Objective

In the process of planning the inquiry method, teachers should focus on students’ abilities. In this case, the teacher should be aware of the students’ background and their ability to carry out the activities in the inquiry method. This is important because each student will go through specific processes in the inquiry process, and teachers also need to know about the abilities of the students in their different classes.

Designing Teaching Materials

Teachers should also provide students with appropriate titles. At the same time, teachers should also ensure that the resources for a title are adequate and provide the resources needed to implement them. For example, teachers can provide appropriate reference materials to enable students to gather information. Reference materials may include reference books, textbooks, newspaper and magazine clippings, documents, maps, electronic media, and others.

Designing Questioning Strategies

In the inquiry method, the questioning strategy is more important than the answer. In this case, the teacher should plan the questions that can guide the students towards the learning objectives they want

to achieve. The questions submitted must be able to develop critical and creative thinking among students. Questions that are more complex and challenge students’ thinking. There are three levels of questions (i) for information (Recall Questions), (ii) questions that require interpretation, and (iii) High-Level questions in which students are required to develop tentative answers. The questions

usually begin with the question of ‘why’ then ‘how’ and so on

Designing Teaching and Learning Strategies

Before implementing the inquiry method, teachers must be clear about what their students need to achieve and learn. Next, teachers should plan student activities according to specific steps. Teachers also need to instruct students to understand what they need to do. In this case, teachers can also decide whether the inquiry is to be conducted individually or in groups. If it’s group work, teachers should take into account specific factors such as group size, group

members of the same or different gender, problems to solve, and so on. In this regard, teachers need to be more democratic in the formation of groups. Also, teachers should consider the techniques and methods that will be used in teaching and learning. For example, teachers can use the discussion method within the group they have formed.

Evaluation

Teachers should also know how to evaluate the inquiry process. Evaluation can be done through questions that students ask, how they perform in learning activities, and how they handle information. Evaluation can also be done using media or audio visual tools for viewing, listening, and analyzing.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INQUIRY METHOD

The inquiry method can be implemented in a variety of ways in a classroom. According to Edwin Fenton (1967), there are six major steps in implementing the inquiry method, as described below.

1. Identify Problems and Information

2. Design Hypothesis

(a) Design analytical questions

(b) State the hypothesis

(c) Be aware of hypotheses formed

3. Identify the logic of the implications of the

Hypothesis to the overall title.

4. Collecting Data and Information

(a) Determine what data is required

(b) Select or reject sources

5. Analyze, evaluate and interpret data or information

(a) Select Relevant Data

(b) Evaluate sources

(c) Interpreting Data or Information

6. Evaluating Hypothesis based on Data

(a) Modify the hypothesis, if necessary

(b) Start or state generalizations

The Role of Teachers in the Inquiry Method

Although the inquiry method is student-centered, it does require a lot of teacher involvement. The role of the teacher in the inquiry method is to be the primary mentor, advisor, and planner. In the early stages of the implementation of the inquiry, teachers should provide topics consistent with students’ cognitive thinking and development so that they understand and are interested in a topic. Teachers should also plan the objectives of their students’ goals, looking for resources that can guide their students toward their goals. In this regard, teachers must also ensure that students use legitimate resources in their studies. Teachers can tell students where and how a resource is available for reference. This will help students find the right information if they are having trouble finding important information; students should do their research. Besides that, teachers should encourage different interpretations of an idea so that not all the students give the same answers. Accordingly, the teacher will receive different answers from the students. Teachers should, therefore, be prepared to listen to and accept different responses from students to

a problem. In this regard, teachers should create an atmosphere that promotes and strengthens the relationship or interaction between students and teachers and students with students. Also, teachers should help students through questions, comments, and suggestions so that students can gain additional knowledge

EFFECTS OF INQUIRY BASED TEACHING APPROACH

Inquiry is a process of active learning that is driven by questioning and critical thinking. The understandings that students develop through inquiry are deeper and longer lasting than any pre-packaged knowledge delivered by teachers to students. According to (Ferguson, 2010) the inquiry based teaching approach has a positive effect on the mathematics achievement of students. In his study, two high school geometry classes were taught area formulation using a traditional lecture based approach to instruction. A third geometry class was taught area formulation utilizing inquiry-based instructional methods. Students in both groups took both a pre-test and post-test. At the end of the exercise, Students involved in the inquiry-based lessons exhibited better retention, a better ability to problem solve, and better performance on decontextualized mathematical problems than their peers who were taught in the traditional fashion. He therefore recommended that teachers of mathematics should apply the inquiry based teaching and learning approach in both at the junior levels through to the tertiary levels.

In the study by Ferguson (2010), the inquiry based mathematics instruction improve mathematics achievement. In his study, two classes were instructed using inquiry based method and the traditional method, each class was taught the same concepts, but through the different methods as mentioned above. Pupils were given both Pre-test and Post-test. Results of the SPSS analysis showed that both classes made improvement from their pre-test to their post-test for both units but students receiving instruction through inquiry-based Instruction showed significantly more improvement on the second unit. Ferguson therefore entreated curriculum developers to adopt the inquiry based mathematics instructions to enhance student conceptual understanding. Other studies by (Crawford & Snider, 2000; Riordan & Noyce, 2001) also found comparable results. In their study, it was found that students taught through inquiry scored higher than the group taught through the traditional method which indicate a very good understanding of students of the inquiry instructions than their traditional group counterparts.

TEACHING AND LEARNING

Teaching

Teaching is a set of events, outside the learners which are designed to support internal process of learning. Teaching (Instruction) is outside the learner. Learning is internal to learners. You cannot motivate others if you are not self-motivated. Motives are not seen,

but, Behaviors are seen. Is learning a motive or behavior? Learning is both a motive and behavior but only behavior is seen, learning is internal, performance is external ((Oriade,2008).

Role of the Teacher:

Generally ,the role of teacher can be categorized into:

Traditional Role - Teacher Centered

Modern Role - Facilitator (Student Centered)

There has been a change from the Traditional role to the Modern role in the present context. The learning increases when the teacher builds on the previous experience of the student However,individual’s learning differs and each individual learns at his or her own pace. Identifying the slow learners and individual attention of the teacher may be required. Thus, effective learning is to a great extent based on experiences. Direct experiences are student centered and participation in problem solving. While in indirect experience, the contents are carefully designed and organized by teacher.

Basic Teaching Model:

Objectives are intended learning outcomes written down before the process of instruction.

General Objectives - Statement of instructional intent - student ability in general terms. Specific objective statement of instructional intent- student ability in terms of specific & observable. Usefulness of objectives, Elements of objectives, Terminal behavior Condition, and Criterion / Criteria. Writers tend to separate learning into three main groups or domains. These are the psychomotor, cognitive and affective domains. Those skills, which are concerned with 4 physical dexterity, for example changing a wheel and giving an injection, fall into the psychomotor domain. Both of the tasks do need knowledge but, predominantly they are physical skills, which need practice. Knowledge and knowing the 'how' and the 'why', the thinking skills, fall into the cognitive domain. Examples include 'stating the names of the major bones in the body', 'explaining why we have tides'. Both of these require thought processes to be accomplished. The third domain, and one we often neglect, is the affective domain. This is concerned with attitudes. Examples in this domain include 'the need to eat a healthy, balanced diet', 'the need for equality of opportunity for all', and 'politeness( Musau,2014)'. These deal with feelings and emotions and are different from the examples in the other domains. Affective Learning occurs when these three domains are seen as interdependent. Each of these domains should be developed as part of teaching/ learning session. Teachers should be able to define learning objectives in each of them. Learning in these three domains often needs different teaching and learning approaches. They are often considered in isolation but in practice learning may occur simultaneously in all three.

Traditional versus Modern role

Traditionally the role of the teacher has been as a purveyor of information: the teacher was the fount of all knowledge. This suggests a picture of students sitting in rows in front of the teacher who is talking and passing information to students with the aid of a

blackboard, while the students either listen passively or, if the teacher is lucky, take their own notes. This, of course, is not true any more. The modern teacher is a facilitator: a person who assists students to learn for themselves. Instead of having students sitting in rows, they are likely to be in groups, all doing something different; some doing practical tasks, some writing, some not even in the room but in another part of the building using specialist equipment or looking up something in the library. All of the students might well be at different stages in their learning and in consequence, the learning is individualized to suit individual requirements and abilities. This change from the traditional model is the result of a number of factors. First, it is recognized that adults, unlike small children, have a wealth of experience and are able to plan their learning quite efficiently. Second, not all individuals learn in the same manner, so that if a teacher talks to students some might benefit, but others might not. Third, everyone learns at their own pace and not, of necessity, at the pace set by the teacher. Hence, the individualizing of learning has defined advantages. Research into the ways that people learn has not provided teachers with any specific answers ( Jegede,2000). If it had, all teachers would be using the same techniques. However, researchers have identified that learning is generally more effective if it is based on experiences; either direct experiences or experiences that have been read about. Of the two types of experiences, the former is more likely to be effective than the latter. Thus concepts that are able to be practiced or seen are more likely to be learning. To apply this in a practical situation in post-16 education and training, learning is more likely to be effective when it is related to, and conducted in, the knowledge of a student’s (work) experience. We need, at this stage, to consider how we as teachers might best provide the experiences so as to make the learning as easy and quick as possible. We might consider two possible approaches to the design of a teaching programme.

(i) A programme where the content is carefully derived from an analysis of the student’s personal, social and/or vocational needs and which is implemented by you in such a controlled and organized manner that the student is almost certain to learn, and is aware when the learning has taken place. By this method motivation is generated by immediate success and the avoidance of failure. Unfortunately this rarely takes place because it has a fundamental drawback. Apart from the requirement for the students to place themselves in the hands of the teacher and thus tend to develop a relationship of dependency, it confirms to them that learning is a process which is organized by someone who knows better. It does not help students to learn on their own.

(ii) The other approach starts from the experience of the student, experience that has taken place as part of life or which has been organized as part of the programme. It then depends upon the student identifying and accepting a need to learn. Such as approach has been described as ‘problem solving’, ‘student-centered learning’,

‘participative learning’, and so on. The problem with this approach is to ensure that important areas of learning are notomitted and that the ‘right’ balance is struck between these areas, and that each area is

learned as effectively as possible. Teaching methods which allow this second approach to be implemented include:

1.  project work derived from students’ current experiences;
2.  discussions which allow students to recognize and consolidate what the experience has taught them, and also lead them to identify what else they need to learn and practice;
3. the learning of specific problem-solving techniques which can be applied to a range of situations;
4. activities designed to provide opportunities for specific learning outcomes. Such a list of teaching approaches identifies a second problem associated with the approach; that of (overconcentrating upon the activities – the practical work which tends to be more enjoyable, and neglecting to recognize the possible learning that can accrue from such activities.

Learning

Learning is about a change: the change brought about by developing a new skill, understanding a scientific law, changing an attitude. The change is not merely incidental or natural in the way that our appearance changes as we get older. Learning is a relatively permanent change, usually brought about intentionally. When we attend a course, search through a book, or read a discussion paper, we set out to learn! Other learning can take place without planning, for example by experience. Generally with all learning there is an element within us of wishing to remember and understand why something happens and to do it better next time (Ibukun,2009).

Learning Models:

We are often faced with questions such as : Why use models? How to teach? How student Learn? Answer comes from experience of many people over many years in form of Models. Such Models can be used by any teacher depending on context. Example: Pedagogical Vs Andragogical Models. Pedagogical approach teacher dominated learning situation - Students rather passive. Andragogical approach - emphasis on what the learner is doing - how adults learn.

Adult Expectations (Learning Needs):

Some of the common adult expectations are :

1.  Adults expect to be taught.
2.  Adult students expect to have to work hard.
3.  Adult student expectation is that the work is related to the vocation.
4.  Adult student’s expectation is that they expect to be treated as adults.

Each of these four expectations although stated in general terms needs to be interpreted as individual needs. Students may vary in age, sex, background, etc. If students treated as individuals - find out more about them (inside - outside classroom), the greater likelihood

to relate their learning to their needs and improve learning potential. Kindness, empathy and sincerity always reap rich dividends with adult learner.In 1981, Further Education Unit (FEU), UK documented a suggested model of lesson design to help overcome the problems associated with the second and more readily applied of the approaches. This Experience, Reflection, Learning Model, they suggested, embodied the principles that:

(i) the process should be focused on the student’s current experience,

(ii) it recognizes the adult nature of the learner by according responsibility for what is learned, and how, and

(iii) the learning can take place in a variety of contexts. The suggestion was that the learning process should be considered in three phases; first, the student’s experience needs to be followed by, secondly, some organized reflection. This reflection ensures that the student learns from the experience and also helps, thirdly, to identify any need for some specific learning before further experience is acquired (Ige,2000).

STUDENTSACADEMICACHIEVEMENT

The complexity of the academic achievement starts from its conceptualization. Sometimes it is known as school readiness, academic achievement and school performance, but generally the difference in concepts are only explained by semantics as they are used as synonyms. Conventionally, it has been agreed that academic performance should be used in university populations and school performance in regular and alternative basic education populations. We will point out just a few because there is a diversity of definitions. Several authors agree that academic performance is the result of learning, prompted by the teaching activity by the teacher and produced by the student. From a humanistic approach, Martinez (2007) states that academic performance is “the product given by the students and it is usually expressed through school grades” (p. 34). Fifteen years ago, Pizarro (1985) referred to academic performance as a measure of the indicative and responsive abilities that express, in an estimated way, what a person has learned as a result of a process of education or training. For Caballero et al. (2007), academic performance involves meeting goals, achievements and objectives set in the program or course that a student attends. These are expressed through grades which are the result of an assessment that involves passing or not certain tests, subjects or courses. On their part, Torres and Rodríguez (2006 quoted by Willcox, 2011) define academic performance as the level of knowledge shown in an area or subject compared to the norm, and it is generally measured using the grade point average,

PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL OR ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

This is to achieve an educational goal, learning. In this regard there are several components of the complex unit called performance. They are learning processes promoted by the school that involve the transformation of a given state, into a new state, and they are achieved with the integrity in a different unit with cognitive and structural elements. Performance varies according to circumstances, organic and environmental conditions that determine skills and experiences. The academic performance involves factors such as the intellectual level, personality, motivation, skills, interests, study habits, self-esteem or the teacher-student relationship. When a gap between the academic performance and the student’s expected performance occurs, it refers to a diverging performance. An unsatisfactory academic performance is the one that is below the expected performance. Sometimes it can be related to teaching methods. (Marti, 2003,). To the present, the expansion of educational opportunities in Latin America has not helped to compensate for the inequalities of a socioeconomic and cultural background. Although it is true, today millions of children and young people, previously excluded from education, enter the educational process K-12 (which term includes preschool, primary and secondary education), on average of one half does not complete it, and the other half continues highly dissimilar paths from the point of view of educational quality. In fact, among those who complete secondary education a condition to avoid the risk of falling below the poverty line in Latin America - at age 15 an average of 50% have failed to achieve a minimum proficiency in learning skills defined by the PISA assessment (Brunner, 2013). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has published the results of the international PISA 2012 with the participation of Peru among other 65 countries or territories.

School Failure

This is not tackled with exams and school systems do not improve by taking tests nonstop. Failure and success are market concepts which have never been considered in the educational world and we have to avoid the strong negative component they both imply. We observed a positivist bias that Marin (2013) describes with these words: “It is studied what fits best in the method, which is best measured, while what it is not so easily quantifiable is invisible.” In this case, PISA has the positive aspect of explicitly stating its approach, and thus it doesn’t intend to evaluate education as a whole, it doesn’t even intend to make of it assessment the most important fact in education. What is really important and useful is to define the educational goals we want to achieve, to analyze the contexts and difficulties we encounter, and to create proposals and mechanisms of action that will allow us to achieve these goals. It is known that during adolescence remarkable physical and psychological transformations occur, especially in personality. These transformations could affect school performance; therefore, teachers must be prepared to positively channel these changes; otherwise, they might take an adverse course. Similarly, we should go for flexible teaching interactions and methods, capable of adapting to students with very different personalities. We should also consider that if impulsivity affects the ability to learn, it may only affect the individual’s crystallized intelligence, not his/her fluid intelligence. This is because first one depends more on teaching-learning processes, while the fluid intelligence refers to the ability to establish relationships regardless of prior knowledge acquired. In this regard Llorente states that improving the educational situation implies to implement, strengthen and apply in all the educational centers, all the various measures that have been proven useful when dealing with diversity: such as splitting, individualized tutoring, the Initial Professional Qualification Program (IPQP), school activities programs, interdisciplinary and/or globalizing methodological proposals such as working in areas or projects, intervention of two teachers in a classroom at the same time, classroom organization in cooperative groups, mediation, negotiation and commitments, coordinating support teams, banks of resources and material, the lack of concentration of disadvantaged students in the same classroom or educational center.Also, a good educational monitoring system should promote a change in attitudes in teachers from certain sectors, beginning with awareness and conviction, rather than imposition. These are attitudes aimed at improving educational practices in the classroom or verification of the curriculum compliance.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Constructivism

The constructivist believes that students construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experience by continually asking questions or through inquiry. Generally, the constructivism concept means encouraging students to use active techniques such as experiments and real-world problem solving to create more knowledge and then to reflect onand talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure that he understands the students’ pre-existing conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them. Constructivism modifies the role of the teacher to that of

a facilitator who helps students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts (Khalid & Azeem, 2012). In a constructivist learning environment, the teacher guides the students through problemsolving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students put together and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, group and convey their knowledge in a collaborative

learning environment. One of the most important strengths of the constructivist approach to instruction is that it transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook. The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding (Khalid & Azeem, 2012).

Social learning theory

A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation. His theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward “reciprocal determininsm” that holds the view that a person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each others. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from “model” behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.

2.3 EMPERICAL FRAMEWORK

Mohammed A. A. (2019) determined the effect of constructivist and inquiry teaching strategies on senior secondary school students' academic achievement in ecology in Adamawa state, Nigeria. The design of the study was quasi-experimental pre-test, post-test control group design. The sample was 84 male and 91 female students of SS 11 students from three senior secondary schools in Adamawa state. The researcher used multi-stage sampling techniques. The researcher used purposive sampling techniques to select co-educational schools funded by the state government while random sampling was used to assign experimental and control group to the selected schools. The result showed that experimental group performed significantly better than control group. The result of this study is line with that of other science researchers Nwagbo & Obiekwe (2010) revealed that 5Es constructivist instructional strategy was more effective in facilitating student's achievements in econology. Of all the literature reviewed in this study non is on effect of inquiry based learning on students' achievement in physics based on structured inquiry.

Ali-Abdi (2014) carried out a study on the effect of inquiry based learning supported by 5E learning on student's academic achievement in science course in Kermanshah Ivan. The study was quasi experimental research design. The sample of the study was 40 girls of fifth grade primary school pupils. The finding revealed that experimental girls performed significantly better than the control girls' group. The study is in line with the findings of (Adams, Benevion & Dengel 1999; Sunger, Tekkaya & Geban 2001; Lord, 1999; Marek, Eubanks & Gallaher; 1990; Seythan & Morgil, 2007; Anderson, 2008).

Maxwell D. O., Lambeth D. T. & Cox, J. T. (2014) carried out a work to determine the effect of inquiry-based learning on science achievement for fifth-grade students. The researcher used a convenient sampling techniques to select participates from two of the 4 fifth-grade classes. A total of 42 pupils participated in the study 22 pupils made up experimental group while 20 pupils the control group. The finding revealed that experimental group performed significantly better than the control group