EFFECT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL ON TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

 Conceptual Framework

 Theoretical Framework

 Empirical framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

DEFINITION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Teaching as a concept requires that teachers should not only have knowledge and skills in a subject but also the professional competence in the use of methods and materials to be able to influence the behavior of learners by using instructional materials. Defined instructional materials as ways and means of making the teaching and learning process easy, more meaningful and understandable [Aramide,2010]. In a similar definition, explained that instructional materials are designed to promote and encourage effective teaching and learning experiences. In view of the above definitions, instructional materials are therefore, sight tools for teachers at all levels of

education process for effective instructional delivery and promote learner’s academic achievement and enable the achievement of the stated objectives of a lesson.

THE PLACE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN TEACHING -

LEARNING PROCESS

The sole aim of any teacher is to ensure effective teaching and learning on the part of his pupils. Therefore, no teaching is possible at any significant age level without the use of instructional materials. And no teacher who hopes to promote learning can ignore the use of instructional materials in teaching and learning. The use of instructional materials obviously helps the students in remembering and retaining what they have learnt. Described instructional materials as instruments used to transmit information, ideas and notes to learners [Ijaduola,1997]. Also, indicate that the role of instructional materials in teaching and learning is one of the most important and widely discussed issues in contemporary education policy. Therefore, instructional materials are paramount important issues in classroom interaction and successful transfer of knowledge from the teacher to the learners.

RELEVANCE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS

Effective use of instructional materials and its relevance with the topic would enable the learners to effectively learn and retain what they have learnt and thereby advancing their performance in the topic been taught. Stated that learning is a process through which knowledge, skills, habits, facts, ideas and principles are acquired, retained and utilized; and the only means of achieving this is through the use of instructional materials in teaching process [Ekueme,2001]. Therefore, the use of relevant instructional materials helps and enhances teachers to teach effectively and productivity during teaching process. Moreover, who noted that are only the teachers who will guarantee effective and adequate usage of instructional materials and thereby facilitate success in learning. Honestly, a teacher who makes use of appropriate instructional materials to supplement his teaching will help and enhance learners’ innovative and creative thinking as well as help them become believable spontaneous and eagerness in any lesson.

TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

The extent and the depth of research carried out on any specific instructional material depended on the amount of value attached to it. There are a variety of instructional

materials designed to achieve various purposes. According to Robert F. etal (1967) it

ranges from apprenticeship training, stimulations and field trips through motion pictures, television, film trips transparencies disk and tape recording to the graphs media of charts, graphs, diagrams, map, cartoons and the symbolic media of the written and spoken words. Also Jenkis J. (1981) gave as “print radio, television, films, cassette tape, recorders, slides music dance and drama group leaders, culture and media. Audio-aids, visual-aids and audio-visual have always played a vital role in the history of Nigerian education. To every trained teacher be a grade II or certificate or an NCE holder audio visual is a common compound word which help the teachers teach well. Adole (1991) in his hand book „”basic instructional technology” classified it into four (4) broad headings:-

a) Audio visual materials – radio, television, poster telephone, video tapes etc.

b) Audio visual facilities–chalk board, bulletin-boards display cases, charts,

photography etc.

c) Audio visual equipment–projectors, record player rewards.

d) Audio visual activities-field trips, demonstrations dramatization, excursion.

Therefore, the following are the relevant use of audio-visual materials:-

a) Promote a mood of natural understanding and sympathy in the classroom.

b) Bring about significance changes in students behaviour

c) Show the relationship of subject matter to the needs and interest of pupils with a

consequent heightening of motivation for learning.

d) Bring freshness and variety to the learning experience

e) It make learning meaningful over a wide range of student abilities

f) Encourage meaningful use of subject matter by allowing for imaginative involvement and active participation.

g) Provide needed feedback that will help the pupil to discover how well he has learned

h) Furnish the rich experiences from which meaningful will be develop

i) When the range of student experience in a process that will foster – non verbalistic learning and the making of accurate generalizations.

j) Assure the order and clarity of thought that the student will need if he is to form

conceptual structures and establish meaningful systems of ideas

According to Lelrcher et al (1995), television viewing in the school and home is particularly significant because these are the two main agents of socialization and education of the individuals. Filep et al (1990), claimed that television had been the most studied because it requires the largest investment than any of the other media, and also it came into a wider use as a time when media was being supported by generous grants for educational purposes or otherwise. Research on programmed in instructional materials also was generously supported in the late 1950‟s both because it was recognized as a new process among the old ones and because the fund for advancement of education and the United State Office of Education had resources with which to contact from such research National Council for Education Technology (1998) also claimed that film had long been a popular subject for research because of its promise for use towards increasing pupils performance and because investigations found it easy and repeated or reviewed when necessary. Radio though came to take advantage of Federal support for media Research Educators showed surprisingly little interest in it would contribute to their classes. Textbooks, slides, pictures and even the projector are also good instructional materials for teaching and learning of social studies. To potress the points being conveyed in this section, a detailed examination or specific instructional materials used in Junior secondary schools social studies classroom will be examined.

The use of Radio

A number of studies have been made on instructional radio and result showed that it is an effective media for imparting knowledge to the students. According to Wittish (1991), educational radio provides listening, participation, effective mean of presenting music for its studies appreciation, team teaching, increasing pupils‟ performance, demonstration, and enlisting the participation of the teacher. Custantine (1992) studying the teaching of social studies by radio in an elementary school showed, that students performed very well on the average 14 months, in one school year on standardized test of study skills. And at present, Kaduna North secondary Education Board (1993), is organizing some programme on social studies. English, science, and mathematics on the state radio in form of quiz with the primary school pupils.

The use of Film

It is generally assumed by educational technologists that what can be said about learning from film is much the same as what can be said about television. As a result,many experiments on instructional television, have actually used a film for projection through the television as experimental comparism with direct teaching-learning has about the same result as television and classroom experiments. The main differences between television and film relate chiefly to different ways of delivering the two media. The fact is that television can be presented life. If desired and the greater amount of control that a teacher has over the use of film when he/she shows it in classroom. According to Custen (1990), the significance of film does not lie in their message or meaning above. For ordinary members either “the market place of social discourse” through film he has seen. Wittish (1991) showed that “Harvey which” social studies films to teachers in 83 high schools. The result was that teachers as well as students gained a significant amount of additional information about social studies from film shown to the students. Instructional film does not only increase pupils‟ performance in social studies but also it increase factual learning. Wittish and Farkes (1990) supporting the assertion that instructional film increase pupils performance, quoted a verbation comment by a pupil: Sound movies made it easier for me to understand about things. They don’t use such big words as the geography books does seeing the film gave me now and different ideas. I learned from films how countries really look, how people look, I got a better ideas of what part of the world the country was. I never know some people lived when I read on books and don’t know what kind of clothes they wear or how they looked, it’s fun and interesting because it tells what books don’t tell. It makes it move plain to me. I can really see things. (P. 108). That films increase factual learning is supported by a study which Schramm and others in Nebrasila carried out in Nebraska. In that study the measured, the result of using sound motion pictures film, with high school storage in 28 Nebraska communities. The findings indicated that majority gain among the students who used films, particularly in general science, biology, social studies and world geography. Witty (1987), Fizwaler (1991) establish the factors that, the regular use of teaching film produces in pupils the desire, interest and readiness not just for mere reading, but for comprehensive reading.

The use of Television

Some studies have been done on television as an effective instructional media. According to Brown et al (1985:190) research indicated that, students remember only 10 percent of what they read, about 20 percent of what they learn and 50 percent of what they hear and see. Television was recognized as a vital medium for education, information and socialization. In reviewing studies to compare television instruction with classroom instruction of Kaduna North L.G.A, Stickeill (1990), showed that the more carefully such comparison were designed and controlled the more likely they showed no significance difference in learning from the source. This agree with the study of Chu and Schramm (1992:78) of 421 television classroom comparison of which 308 showed no significant difference, 63 comment in favour of television and 52 in favour of classroom teaching. Conton and Pain (1996), claimed that the advantage of television viewing have long been the subject of educational research. Results from such research showed that television ha some value as the film. In addition it has the power to bring into the classroom many important events at exactly the moment that are taking place. It should be noted that there were some indications that showed that television had advantage over social studies classroom instructions. Wittish and Shullar (1990) in the magazine for managers of change in education. January to February, (1997) pointed out that:

“It was recognized that there is no magic in television. It is now widely recognized that the effectiveness of educational television depends on excellence of planning, producing, use of audio-visual media and systematic classroom utilization (p. 75). Writing about the attitude of teachers toward television programmes, Wittish and Schullar (1990) continued “The classroom to welcome this kind of television production as a means of bringing understandable new experience into classroom. Following their use, the classroom teachers continue as the one responsible for guiding and inspiring the inventive creativity of those pupils who can respond in such way”. However, the effect of instructional television in teaching and learning will depend on the type quality of television instruction.

The use of Textbook

According to Bedly (1990) and Dubin (1994), research has showed that a large proportion of instructional materials found in most schools are printed materials. The reason is not that they are considered to be the most effective, but they are the most accessible and easy to use. The textbook‟s is the one required that is used by the entire class in studying a particular subject. This does not imply that all learning activist should be geared towards teaching the contents of the book, or that it should form the sole basis for organizing the day to day teaching. Instead, it should be regarded only as one of the several useful materials that will aid as in making our lessons more exciting and more interesting. However, printed materials includes magazines and journals.

The use of three dimensional materials (objects, models and specimens)

A number of research has been conducted on the effect of three dimensional materials by Brown et al (1985:168) defined three dimensional materials that is: objects; these are real things, a table, pencil, jets, cooking utensils are some of the examples of objects. Specimen could also be a part of a object such as wing of a butterfly, the head of a grasshopper, the back of a tree and others. According to brown et al (1985) since objects and specimens are real things they provide direct first hand experiences which are necessary for concept formation. Pupils can, see, touch, smell, or even taste them hence giving them a richer and more meaningful understanding of the things learned. However, if the real thing is not available, or two large to take to the class, or too small for the naked eye to see, or too dangerous for the students to manipulate, the use of models is very advantageous.

The use of Chalkboard

This is another important type of instructional materials. The commonest and most readily available form is the chalkboard. The term chalkboard is now used instead of the conventional term blackboard since chalkboard now come in different colours. The most popular colour but now the most common in Nigeria is green because it is easier in the eyes and it makes the room look more cheerful. In addition, green makes a pleasant contracts with white and yellow chalks which are the most commonly available types. The chalkboard is a versatile device, it‟s use can be adopted to any kind of subjects and to various types of situations. No special talent is necessary to be able to use it, because the chalkboard is so common, teachers tend to forget to make maximum use of it and yet, when it is not there, they find it difficult to teach. It is unfortunate that very little instructional is being given to teachers during their pre-service education on the proper utilization of the chalkboard. Like other instructional materials, effective use of the chalkboard. Like other instructional materials, effective use of the chalkboard lies in the professional and skillful handling by the teacher.

The use of Tape Recorder

Some researches work been done on tape recorder and it‟s agreed by educational technologists that tape recorder increase pupils performance. Tape recorders can be used to individualize instruction. This is especially useful for slow learners, because they can be listening to tape on their own without holding back the rest of the class. They can also be used to record the news on television or radio, as well as other contemporary sounds like the noise of machines in a factory, the noise of animals in a farm, the huming of the bees, and other similar sounds for future instructional purposes. Tape recorder is an important instructional material in teaching and learning purposes. Elliant (1992), compared the use of tape recorder with television in social studies lesson in private secondary school. The result revealed that lower I. Q. students gained relatively more from tape recorder.

PRINCIPLES NECESSARY IN SELECTION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

a) The need of the class should determine the type of instructional material to be used

b) That, materials are most effective when they are closely correlated with the course of study

c) The age and experience of the students should be considered in selecting instructional materials

d) Instructional materials should be previewed by the teacher if and how they can be used in the class room.

e) Continuous evaluation of instructional materials by those who use them is desirable

f) Instructional materials should be adequate in content and acceptable in quality production

AVAILABILITY OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SCHOOLS

Odeh (1970) in recent times, researches have revealed that the availability of instructional materials varies from one school to another. Instructional materials in schools are sometimes valuable and therefore must be provided for effective teaching and learning. Abimboluetal (1982) in their study of “the use of Audio Visuals Aids” reported that most of the essential audio visual aids particularly with regards to teaching social studies methods were not available in schools”. Odeh (1978), further mentioned that „the suggestion offered by the respondents showed that a variety of more audio visual materials were still desired by various teachers. It is obviously clear from the foregoing that social studies subjects have not been adequately taught as Ofodile (1985) in his study of “the problems facing teaching and learning of shorthand” discovered that all the three institutions lack enough and adequate instructional materials. BamideleEtal (1987), in their study found out that most of the essential audio visuals aids particularly with regards to teaching of distributive subjects were inadequately provided for by the schools. Adole (1991) further stated that centres were established without clearly defined objectives. They were poorly equipped, staffed and mentioned for effective teaching and learning to supports, schools broadcasting and audio visuals aids services were established, equipped with radio and television set projection equipment, tape recorder etc. Bobinh (1978) studied the availability and use of audiovisual aid in teaching English in post-primary institutions in Zaria. This research revealed that 61.5 percent of teachers used only textbooks and chalkboard in teaching. The available audiovisual aids were not used to the maximum, and only 15.4 percent of the teachers made word cards and flash cards jointly with their students. Harcelroad (1991), disclosed that, the availability of instructional materials vary from institutions to institutions. According to him many classrooms do not have all the facilities and equipments need for teaching and learning. In some schools, some of the available facilities were far below the required standard. He however, confirmed that some inventive teachers derived ways of using the audio-visual materials despite their unfavorable condition, and added that environment favourable so that learning can be created in almost all classrooms. In a survey audio-visual materials in the Junior secondary schools of Kaduna North L.G.A, conducted by Kaduna North L.G.A secondary. It was revealed that 580 secondary schools had bulletin board in their classroom, but they were not fully utilized. Slides, tape recorders, film strips and motion pictures projectors were available in some schools, but not in others. Some globes, maps, charts and models were available but not fully utilized. In some junior secondary schools, some equipments and materials were locked up in the store and not used, while in others they were occasionally used in teaching and learning of social studies. It was also discovered that most schools had radio, but pupils do not listen to educational programmes and there were no provision for that in the school time-table.Harcelroad (1991), expressing concerned over the non-use of audio-visual materials by the teaching profession, commented: Despite a considerable history of research and development. The never devices of communication have not been completely accepted by the teaching profession, this has been particularly and in such social institutions as churches and welfare groups have shown great surprise in developing film communication acceptance and use of film by teachers have fallen far short of the obvious possibilities.Harcelroad attributed that slow acceptance of audio-visual materials by most teachers is the fact that, “the average teacher is still ill prepared to use them and average school is still poor equipped for them”. Oliagba (1985) in the 1983 convocation of the pastoral council Arch diocese of Kaduna complained that the shortage of supporting materials namely teaching aids in schools is a very crucial problem. Therefore to expect better results in social studies in any examination, adequate facilities must be provided for both teachers and students even in social studies. Akolo (1976) referred to (1995) Igungu who ranked non-availability of teaching aids as one of the factors which contributed to poor teaching by teachers, and to the mass failures in the West African Certificate Examinations. He further discovered 20% of teachers used flash cards while 60% had no access to any teaching aids. Harceldoad (1959) postulated that many classrooms do not have the essential facilities and equipment needed for teaching. It was also revealed that in some schools the available facilities were far below the required standard. He went further to confirm that some resource teachers devised ways of using the audiovisual aid despite the unfavourable condition. He nonetheless maintains that the innovative teacher can create a favourable learning condition in every classroom Akolo (1976) pointed out that, at times, teachers are not aware of the resource materials that are available in their institutions. Oke (1980) seemed to share the same view with Akolo, from the findings of a survey done in Kaduna North L.G.A post-primary schools in 1976 by the institute of Education A.B.U., Zaria. The survey revealed that only a few colleges had flannel boards. Most schools had bulletin boards in their classroom but were not fully utilized. Some teachers appeared not to have noticed the existence of such materials. Digga (1987) had a contrary view to both Akolo and Oke here. He argued that some of the few instructional materials in existence (not necessarily the bulletin boards) were found to be irrelevant by the teachers to their lessons, and too few to be managed in the classroom. This resulted in a total neglect, not because teachers were not aware of their existence.

USEFULNESS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

It should be noted that the extent and depth of research carried out on any specific instructional materials depend on the amount of importance attached to it. Blending of different instructional materials enables the teacher transmit and the learner assimilate effectively as a result of growth in technology and knowledge explosion contended that to make learning meaningful, a professional teacher should “guide and direct learning activities based on his knowledge of how best the students may best achieve the goals expected by society selecting those activities and teaching materials best suited to the specific purpose to each day‟s work”. They further viewed that teachers are concerned about the availability of appropriate instructional materials because they know how much tools influence teaching and quality of learning in the class room Agun (1976) in his study of “importance of Audio visual instructional materials stated that a teacher can use teaching aids in various ways to make his instructional effort more effective and thus more productive in terms of student learning and growth. He can for instance use them to arrest and sustain attention, to help him present facts and information, teach concept and principles, guide thinking and induce transfer of learning. Gilbert etal (1951) also maintained that the mental images which are created by pictorial stimuli and models are easy to recall because of the intense interest at the time of perception and thus asserted that “every teacher is to enrich and to vividly use the curriculum”. He is constantly aware of the importance of new innovation such as chats or films that can be use simultaneously by the whole class.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND STUDENTS ACADEMIC-PERFORMANCE

Research have shown that the performance of students is dependent on several factors but that instructional materials rank higher. It is a well known fact that when students fail their examinations people blame them for not being serious, whereas in reality students are often made scape-goats. This is so because recent research findings reveal many factors which affect performances of students failure in their examinations Oke (1980) stated that teachers have been regrettably identified as the chief contributors to the poor performance of students in the examinations. The research also showed that lack of use or inefficient use of instructional materials came first among these factors which deter the educational progress of most students in our schools. Oliagba (1985) stated that the research he carried out in three schools in Kaduna Local Government Area of Kaduna State showed that the results of the students performance in social studies. West African Examination Council were poor. One of the factors for the poor performance was attributed to the teachers. According to him, some teachers were not professionally trained teachers, and they did not use instructional materials in teaching social studies. He also maintained that, the teachers were also not enough for the schools. 87% of the students sampled in FadanKaje indicated that the school did not provide teaching aids for them or for the teachers. 71 out of hundred students sampled in Zonkwa indicated that teachers used only the text books to teach them. Few students out of 96 in Kaduna also indicated that the school did not provide teaching aids for them. Social studies in Kaduna North secondary school cannot be exception among many other objects. Akolo (1976) argued that only 10% of those who go to secondary school to learn are successful in the West African Examinations. He asserted that most teachers do not use teaching aids in their lessons generally. Ji (1978) contented in the research he carried out that in Gboko Benue State 89% of the students confirmed their teachers‟ non-use of any audio-visual materials in teaching English, Literature or mathematics, same is feasible in social studies in Kaduna North L.G.A. According to Oladunni (1989), the research she conducted in some secondary schools in Benue State revealed that from 1983 to 1989, four (4) schools recorded poor performances blamed the social studies teachers for the poor performance. It was claimed that they never use teaching aids in their lessons but always carry just a copy of text book to the class. All the principals in the schools studied blamed the students for lack of seriousness in studying the subject. One of the principals blamed the students for not following the instruction of W.A.E.C. which made them unable to answer the required number of questions in the examinations. Ogunbi (1989) asserted that in Educational technology the word „teacher‟ may refer to men, women or machine. He went further to state that it is necessary for the teachers to examine some characteristic of the subject in order to appreciate the instructional process which would best enhance its teaching. Same is needed by social studies teachers in junior secondary school in Kaduna North L.G.A. Ogunbi continued by arguing that Social Studies is a subject which discusses dimensions of Knowledge in a human being which is invisible and the consequences of encounter with him cannot be empirically tested, or subjected to laboratory scientific analyses. It is an abstract subject matter. He, however, contended that though it is an abstract subject, themes on, power and authority can be effectively taught from things which we see and touch; therefore teachers should use instructional materials in presenting their lessons. Social studies as a subject shares the same characteristics as many other subjects and as such requires various teaching materials for proper explanation to ensure proper learning. Highlighting this Bamidele (1987) reported that “proper use of audio visual materials during the lesson helped to sustained students‟ interest and therefore stimulated learning”.

MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIAL STUDIES

John R. Lee (1974:7), defines social studies as “the study that deals with mankind‟s social, economic and political behaviour at any place where people live or have lived. This definition also implies that history, Geography, Philosophy and the various social sciences are part of social stud y. These academic disciplines in relation to other people; people in relation to their environment or people; or people in relation to ideas, although the focus may vary in time, space or value, but one element always remain in the picture–people. Tarolimek (1959:3), defined social studies as: “An inclusive but highly specific term applied to that area of the elementary school curriculum which has a primary responsibility for assisting the child to develop skill in understanding of human relationship”. The school is always expected by the people to contribute directly to the development of loyalty to the democratic ideas, good citizenship, civic responsibility and human relationship, which represent the broader goals of education, but social studies have historically assumed a specific responsibility toward the attainment of these goals. For Wesley (1950:1214), social studies is defined as: “those portions of the social sciences selected for instructional purposes”. Social education is more inclusive, broader concept embracing the entire interpersonal, social life of the child. Social studies as an area of the curriculum is regularly scheduled part of school day, social education takes place whenever the child is in a social situation. Kissock (1981:10) defines social studies as: “A programme of study which a society uses to instill in students the knowledge, skills, attitudes and actions it considers important concerning the relationships human beings have with each other, their world and themselves”. By this definition, social studies gives the students the opportunity to examine and understand their physical and human environment in order to behave as responsible citizens. Dubey (1980) regards social studies as “the investigation of human activity, since it studies man at home, at work, at workshop, in politics, at play, in the village in the nation and so on and so forth”. Onyabe (1980) sees social studies as “a field of study that deals with the integration of knowledge, experience and effective use of resources for the purpose of citizenship education”. Udoh (1983:136) defines social studies as “the study of man and the outcomes of his relationships and interactions with his environments.” This definition means that social studies deals with man in all its totality, namely as a social being, political and cultural actor. Despite the divergent views about what social studies is, there are some areas of agreement, that social studies is the study of society; that it is concerned with relationships within the society; and that the central concern or focus of social studies is “man”.

NATURE OF SOCIAL STUDIES

According to Mini Chambers Dictionary (1981:330) “is the quality which makes a thing, person, animal that it is or he is”. Therefore, the nature of social studies is the quality that makes social studies what it is. What therefore is the nature of social studies? First and foremost, social studies is seen as a corrective study. Corrective because it aims at upsetting the colonial eras and also examining the present educational system. Similarly, social studies, because of its nature incorporates all aspects of reforms revitalization and maintenance of the education values, knowledge and skills expected of a people concerned about progress and modernization. Also as its nature, “social studies emphasizes objectives before any content can be significant”. J.G. Herbert (1982:36). The last and probably the most important nature of social studies is that it is a study that emphasizes the importance of man. Man is put in a central position and his activities are studied in relationship to his various environments which could be physical, social or psychological. Man can only exist in his varied environments by understanding, interacting, organizing and running his society in an order of cultural, economic and political setting. Hence social studies will try to gather relevant knowledge, values and skills centred around the subjects that form parts of these broad spheres of man.

Scope of Social Studies

On the other hand is the level of coverage, quantity and quality of content. In social studies, the scope varies depending on level of wants considered. However, the general pattern of content arrangement seems to follow a spiral or expanding horizon pattern or format. Man is put in the focus and all environmental attributes are arranged around him proceeding from known to unknown. In other words, the scope of social studies covers the study of man and all environmental attributes and also some aspects of the interaction between Nigerian society and the society of the world community. Bank (1977:10), has this to say, “The local studies should assume the major responsibility for helping children become adept at making important decisions that affect their relationships with other human beings and the governing of their local communities and nation”. The social studies programme includes knowledge, concepts, attitudes and values draw from history, Geography, Sociology, Economic, Religion as well as other humanities and social sciences. For a social studies programme to be effective, Onyabe(1979:1), started that it must be directed to four objectives: knowledge, the basic skills, values and beliefs and social participation. The importance of social studies as a subject of school curriculum cannot be over-emphasized. Through social studies, a student learns how to be useful to himself and his society. He identifies his needs, his strengths and weaknesses. The study of social studies gives him the opportunity to learn how to appreciate his right, and how to relate with other people in the society for his own benefit and that of others. Social studies teachers the interdependence of local communities and the wider nations. In emphasizing the importance of social studies, Dubey, et al (1980:2) stressed that: It is the hope of social studies that the knowledge, attitudes, and skills obtained in the process of children so citizen will be useful to them and to Nigerian society. To him, project approach of teaching connects learning and experiences, this given good given training for the solution of problems is practical life. It also develops tolerance for this actions and opinion of others, since project are mostly carried out in groups. It makes learning a unified process, bringing interest, ideals character traits and attitudes together in functioning relations.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Learning Theories About Instructional Materials

Learning according to Kimble and Germezy (1991) is a qualitative permanent change in a behavioural tendency as a result of reinforced practice”. Learning as inferred state of the organism, should be distinguished from performance, on observed state of the organism. Learning events consist of stimuli, learner and responses. According to Mukherjee (1978), learning may be held to be an inference from some performance of the organisms manifesting a change of behaviour. But changes of behaviour can be brought about in an individual by the influence of drugs or tiredness. Such changes in behaviour are temporary and they do not imply any gain to the organism, for his survival, and hence they can be excluded as example of learning. To understand what psychologists mean by learning, one has to distinguish between the kinds of changes and their related antecedents, which are included in learning and the related kinds of changes, and their antecedents which are not included as learning. There are a number of learning theories, these learning theories fall into two broad categories, namely; connectionist and cognitive theories. Under connectionists heading the researcher considers the explanation of Thorndike and Skinner, while under cognitive, Gestalt psychology was outlined and explained.

The Theory Of e.l.l Thorndike (1914-1949)

The Thorndike the basis of learning is an association of some sort between sense impression and actions, between stimulus(s) and response(s). His major theoretical statement as the law of effect. This is its simplest form stated that the setting up and strengthening of any association and connection between a stimulus and a response depend not only on their occurring together, but also on the effects that follow their occurring together. These effects may be satisfying and rewarding of annoying and punishing. He attempted to define these effects objectively and more in terms of behaviour that could be observed. By a satisfying state of affairs is meant one which the animal does nothing to avoid, often doing things which maintain of renew it. By annoying state of affair is meant one which the animal does nothing to preserve, often doing things which put an end to it. (p. 132). Later, experimental work made Thorndike to modify the law of effect suggesting that reward is more important and effective than punishment in the learning situation. He retained the view that reward strengthens connections and associations, but now saw punishment as weakening them only indirectly. Punishment does its connection with the stimulus. According to Thorndike‟s terms, what really happens when an operator learns an industrial task like drilling, where he picks up a component, places it in a jig, brings down the drill with a certain pressure, etc. The clearing processes here is seen as establishing a series of corrections between specific stimuli and specific responses, set up by the effects of reward and punishment on the occurring together or the stimuli responses. Thorndike emphases the relevance of an analysis at the level of the senses and the motor response mechanism of the effectors and muscles. This is an approach to the learning process in terms of determining the relevance stimuli and responses are common to connectionist theories, and has proved very useful in training.

Classical learning theory

Classical learning theory was observed almost exclusively from studies of animal learning and its value within educational technology has probably been overrated. However, certain basic concept should be mentioned, the most relevant being secondary reinforcement. Stated simply, the assumption was that, animals would act in order to reduce the strength of an internal psychological need (primary drive). Primary reinforcement, as it was postulated, directly reduced primary drive (e.g longer or thins) while secondary reinforces were stimuli closely associated with this process. A classic demonstration was by Cowle (1973) who trained chimpanzees to use tokens in a vending machine to obtain food and subsequently to solve discrimination problems in order to obtain the tokens alone. It is still generally argued that most human learning is governed by secondary rather than primary reinforcement. Skinner sees the organism as essentially active in the environment, emitting behaviour. Any aspect of that behaviour may be reinforced by the environment. The job of the trainer is to ensure current organization, structuring, programming in the training department, that the right bit of baheviour is reinforced. This amends that he needs to be clear as to what the right bits of behaviour is. The trainer according to skinner, must start with a precise statement of desired terminal behaviour. He must to also ensure that, the appropriate stimulus, the right type of behaviour and the reinforcement (mastery) are corrected in they individual‟s experience, programmed instruction attempts to do all this.

Learning theory in Gest’t psychology

Gestalt psychology postulates that the individual organism tends to perceive and react to phenomena in terms of significant and meaningful wholes. So learning here is an attempt by the organism to impose meaning and structure on its experience. We usually perceive a square the organism strives to structure. The Gestalt analysis of the learning process is in terms of the change in the individual‟s perception of the situation. Learning may be regarded as the individual‟s restructuring of his perception of situation and when learning has occurred, what previously was perceived one way is not seen in a different way.When individual‟s perception is a problem and is suddenly structured in a more useful way he usually experiences a feeding of insight. This is the „AL‟, Now I‟ve got it‟, sensation that may accompany the grasping of a geometrical proof or which the learner drive feels when he master the relationship; between the accelerator and cluth in stating the car. Gestalt psychology suggests that the learning process consist of a perceptual restructuring of the situation into a more meaningful and insightful form. In training the instructor must structure the environment to ensure that the trainee is able to perceive and grasp the relevant relationships. In relation to the above discussion of learning theories, emphases must be given to the integration of instructional materials to increase performance and promote effective acquisition of relevant learning experiences. This is basic in view of the level and mental readiness of the pupils. It should to noted that concretization of learning through the use of instructional materials cannot be overemphasized.

2.3 EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK

Otor, Ogbeba, and Ityo (2015) study the “Influence of Improvised teaching Instructional Materials on Chemistry Students‟ Performance in Senior Secondary Schools in Vandeikya Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria”. The purpose of the study was to the use of improvised instructional materials on the performance of chemistry students Two research questions guided the study and two hypotheses were raised and tested at 0.05 significant level. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. A sample of 150 senior secondary school chemistry students was used in the study determine through simple random sampling procedure. Data used for the study was collected through researcher-made questionnaire. Mean and standard deviation statistics were used in answering the research questions while Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used in testing the hypotheses. The study found that Students taught using improvised instructional materials outperformed their counterparts taught with conventional lecture method. The study recommended among others that teaching of chemistry using improvised instructional materials should be encouraged since it facilitates the learning of this subject. The study by Otor, Ogbeba, and Ityo (2015) is similar to the present study thus: both studies focus on effect of instructional material on academic performance and both studies was guided by two research questions and two hypotheses were raised And tested. The areas of difference are, while Otor, Ogbeba, and Ityo (2015) adopts descriptive research design the present study adopts quasi-experimental design; data in the above study were obtained through questionnaire while in the present study it was obtained through test items; the above study used ANOVA while this study used t-test.

Nwike and Onyejegbu (2013) conducted a study on the “Effects of Use of Instructional Materials on Students Cognitive Achievement in Agricultural Science”. The purpose of study was to find out the effects of use of instructional material on students cognitive achievement in agricultural science in secondary schools of Orumba South Local Government Area. Two research questions guided the study and one hypothesis was raised and tested at 0.05 significant level. The study adopted Quasi-experimental design. The target population of the study was Junior Secondary School II students. A sample of 256 students drawn through simple random sample technique was used in the study. Date for the study was obtained through administration of achievement test items. The data collected in the study was analysed using mean, standard deviation and z-test statistics. The findings of the study revealed that students taught with instructional materials performed better than those taught without instructional materials. The study recommended that instructional materials be used in teaching in secondary schools because it has positive impact on student‟s performance.

Olayinka (2016) conducted a study on “Effects of Instructional Materials on Secondary Schools Students‟ Academic Achievement in Social Studies in Ekiti State, Nigeria” The aim of this paper is to highlight the contribution of instructional materials to the academic achievement of secondary school students in Social Studies in Ekiti State. The population for the study comprised of all Junior Secondary School Class II students from among which 180 were sample. A multiple-choice self- designed Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT) was used to collect data for the study. The study generated four hypotheses that were tested at the significance level of 0.05. ANOVA and ANCOVA statistical tools were used to analyse the data collected. The study found that there was a significant difference in the pre-test and post-test of students in the experimental group. The study also found that gender effect was not statistically significant in social studies. The study concluded that students who were taught with instructional materials performed better than those taught without. The study therefore recommended that teachers of Social Studies should employ the use of essential instructional materials for their teaching and also improvise where and when the materials are not available. The study by Olayinka (2016) is similar to the present study thus: both studies focus on effect of instructional material on academic performance and both studies adopt quasi-experimental design. The areas of difference are, while Olayinka (2016) used ANOVA and ANCOVA to analysed data while this study used t-test; while in the above study JSS two students were used, but in the present study JSS three students were used; the above study was conducted in Ekiti state while the present study was conducted in Kaduna state.