EFFECTS OF BANDITRY ON FARMING SYSTEM IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

2.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Banditry

A bandit is a robber or outlaw belonging to a gang, who uses weapons to steal or rob from the people and typically operating in an isolated or lawless area of a country. Banditry is a term used to refer to acts of robbery and violence in areas where the rule of law has broken down (Collins, 2000). Banditry consists of the organization of armed bands for the purpose of attacking state or social institutions or enterprises or individual persons. Participation in such bands and in the attacks committed by them is equally regarded as banditry (Collins, 2000). Historically, banditry has existed and operated in different parts of the world since the 19th century when bandits riding mostly on horse backs move from their hideouts to attack villages and then retreated back to their hideouts. In Europe, bandits have existed in mainly mountainous areas of Italy, Spain, Greece and Turkey (Cassia, 1993). In Asia, bandits have existed in several countries such as Iran, Philippines and India (Bankoff, 1998). In India, bandits are called Daku in Hindi Language which the British colonialist coined as dacoity during the colonial period. Thus dacoity has become a term for banditry in the Indian subcontinent where bandits have operated for many years in north and north central India. One of the notable dacoits was Gabbar Singh who inspired the famous 1975 Bollywood film Sholay (Flames) based on his life. Therefore, banditry has a rich and lucrative history throughout south Asia and despite continued anti banditry efforts, the problem of banditry persists in India presently (Dmella, 2018).

Banditry is another security challenge in Africa where bandits have continued to ravage the horn of Africa, East and Central Africa and the trans-Saharan trade routes from Niger Republic all the way to Libya (Aregbesola, 2020). Banditry has existed in parts of Chad and around Lake Chad and they also have significant presence in parts of Southern Africa (Aregbesola, 2020). In West Africa, the prevalence and severity of banditry has contributed to the rising increase in regional insecurity with a potential threat to regional integration of the subregion (Abdullahi, 2019). Reports have shown that some of the bandits from some countries of the West African sub-region such as Niger Republic and Mali were invited to carry out large scale attacks in some countries of the sub-region. They moved through the porous West African borders with their arms to assist their fellow bandits in carrying out large scale or reprisal attacks. In Nigeria, banditry came as a result of nearly four decades of unresolved conflicts between settled cultivators and nomadic herding communities.

FARMING SYSTEM

Farming system represents an appropriate combination of farm enterprises (cropping systems horticulture, livestock, fishery, forestry, poultry) and the means available to the farmer to raise them for profitability. It interacts adequately with environment environment without without dislocating dislocating the ecological ecological and socioeconomic balance on one hand and attempts to meet the national goals on the other (Jayanthi et al 2002).Farming system is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained agricultural production to meet diverse requirements of farm livelihood while preserving resource base and maintaining a high level of environment quality quality (Lal and Miller 1990).

Farming system is an integrated set of activities that farmers perform in their farms under their resources and circumstances to maximize the productivity and net farm income on a sustainable basis. The farming system takes into account the components of soil, water, crops, livestock, labour, capital,energy and other resources, managing agriculture and related activities. Depending on the type of farming e.g Arable/Pastoral, Commercial/Subsistence, the inputs, process and output will vary.

Farming systems approach relates to the whole farm or developing a farm rather than individual elements; it is driven as much by the overall welfare of farming households as by goals of yield and profitability. The system are closely linked to livelihoods because agriculture remains the single most important component of most rural people’s living and also plays an important role in the lives of many people in semi-urban areas. Farming systems involve a complex combination of inputs, managed by farming families but influenced by environmental, political, economic,institutional and social factors. Research and extension institutions are increasingly aware that a holistic approach,drawing on both local and external knowledge, is necessary if they are to be effective in addressing poverty and sustainability.

Farming enterprises include crop, livestock, poultry, fish etc. A combination of one or more enterprise with cropping when carefully chosen, planned and executed gives greater dividends than a single enterprise, especially for small or marginal farmers. Farm as a unit is to be considered and planned for effective integration of the enterprise to be combined with crop production. A farm system involves the inputs, processes and outputs, Depending the type of farming e.g Arable/Pastoral, Commercial/Subsistence the amount of inputs, process and output will vary.

TYPES OF FARMING SYSTEM

According to Rachael E. (2005), she stipulated four types farming system which includes:

1. Irrigated Farming System: This is a system of supplying water to farming fields that lack sufficient moisture for crop growth. This system increases water content in the root layer of soil in order to increase soil fertility and promote healthy crop growth.

Uses:

• Irrigation makes cultivation of cash crops possible, ensuring good financial returns to farmers. Cash crops such as sugarcane & potatoes survive well with this system.
• It allows the growth of crops in periods when rainfall is inadequate.
• It ensures the moisture content of the soil is maintained. This allows for proper germination of seeds.
• Irrigation aids mineral nutrients absorption by plant of the soil.

1. Mixed Farming System: This is the most common farming in Nigeria. It involves the use of one farmland for two or more independent agricultural activities. Mixed farms are systems that consist of different parts, which together acts as a whole, An example of a mixed farming system is the combination of crop farming with live stock farming. The aim of this system is to ensure that Livestock doesn’t depend on external sources for food, crop farming gives feed to the animals and in turn, the animals can supply fertilizers to the crop.

Uses:

• Both farming activities are mutually beneficial to each other much to the farmers delight.
• This system ensures that the fields are constantly in production all year round.
• Farming cost is reduced as the crops serve as feed for the animals while the animals supply the crops with nutrients through their droppings. All these reduce the running cost of the farm.
• The profit of the farmer from the field is greatly increased due to increased activity.
• Organic manure in the form of animal dropping ensures that the fields continue to be fertile every planting season.

1. Tree- Crop Farming System: This is a farming system that are grown for economic or environmental benefit. The most common tree crops produce includes cocoa, coffee, oil palm and rubber. After these industrial tree crops are planted, food crops are planted between them and are grown mainly for subsistence. Also, few animals are also raised in addition to the planted trees and crops.

Uses:

• Used to increase the profit of farmers.
• Farmers save cost as their food are derived from the farm.
• The animals also provide organic manure which serve as a fertilizer.

1. Integrated Farming System: Integrated farming system is a cross-linked farming system where farmers use high-quality organic food and renewable energy. The main principle of such system is to reduce pollution and increase income by combining different types of farming. This is a management system that deals with a whole farm which aims to deliver more sustainable agriculture. It refers to agricultural system that integrate livestock & crop production.

Uses:

• This system increases production to meet the demand of people.
• Intensification of crops growth maximizes income in relation to area, time and efforts.
• This ensures influx of income. This means that within a year, it is possible to make profit constantly from different agricultural sectors with separate season.

IMPORTANCE OF FARMING SYSTEM

Farming system have been known to be of immense importance in several ways according to Swapnil P.(2016).

1. Productivity: Farming system provides an opportunity to increase economic yield per unit area per unit time by virtue of intensification of crop and allied enterprises. Time concept by crop intensification and space concept by building up of vertical dimension through crops and allied enterprises.
2. Profitability: The system as a whole provides an opportunity to make use of produce/waste material of one enterprise as an input in another enterprise at low/no cost. Thus by reducing the cost of production the profitability and benefit cost ratio works out to be high. This is the main objective of farming system.
3. Potentiality: Soil health, a key factor for sustainability is getting deteriorated and polluted due to faulty agricultural management practices viz., excessive use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, high intensity irrigation etc. In farming system, organic supplementation through effective use of manures and waste recycling is done, thus providing an opportunity to sustain potentiality of production base for much longer time.
4. Balanced food: In farming system, diverse enterprises are involved and they produce different sources of nutrition namely proteins, carbohydrates, fats & minerals etc form the same unit land, which helps in solving the malnutrition problem prevalent among the marginal and sub-marginal farming households.
5. Environmental safety: The very nature of farming system is to make use or conserve the byproduct/waste product of one component as input in another component and use of biocontrol measures for pest & disease control. These eco-friendly practices bring down the application of huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, which pollute the soil water and environment to an alarming level. Whereas IFS will greatly reduces environmental pollution.
6. Income/cash flow round the year: Unlike conventional single enterprise crop activity where the income is expected only at the time of disposal of economic produce after several months depending upon the duration of the crop, the IFS enables cash flow round the year by way of sale of products from different enterprises viz., eggs from poultry, 14 milk from dairy, fish from fisheries, silkworm cocoons from sericulture, honey from apiculture etc. This not only enhances the purchasing power of the farmer but also provides an opportunity to invest in improved technologies for enhanced production.
7. Saving energy: Availability of fossil fuel has been declining at a rapid rate leading to a situation where in the whole world may suffer for want of fossil fuel by 2030 AD. In farming system, effective recycling of organic wastes to generate energy from biogas plants can mitigate to certain extent this energy crisis.
8. Meeting fodder crises- In IFS every inch of land area is effectively utilized. Alley cropping or growing fodder legume along the border or water courses, intensification of cropping including fodder legumes in cropping systems helps to produce the required fodder and greatly relieve the problem of non- availability of fodder to livestock component of the farming system.
9. Solving fuel and timber requirement
10. Provides environmental safety
11. Recycling of farm waste
12. Provides income round the year
13. Helps in employment generation
14. Provides raw materials to agro-industries

IMPACT OF BANDITRY ON FARMING SYSTEM

Banditry has brought negative impacts on food security in Benue state. This is because banditry characterized by killings, kidnappings, threats, robberies, theft, burnings, raiding and blocking of local trade routes which are highlighted below:

Killing of farmers

This is one of the most devastating impacts of banditry in Benue state whereby farmers were killed by the bandits. Most families experience food insecurity when the head of the households are dead. These farmers are heads of households who are married with children and their death adversely affects the other family members in terms of food supply. Example of killing of farmers by bandits took place at Yargamji village of Konshisha LGA where on 6th July 2020, farmers were on the farm working after an overnight rain, the bandits numbering over 200 shot sporadically killing 15 farmers and injuring several others (Aminu, 2020). On 10th September, 2020, three famers were also killed by bandits in Dandume LGA, one of the most agrarian areas in the state (Erezi, 2020). In fact most of the people killed by the bandits in the villages of the five LGAs sampled for the study are either farmers or cattle rearers whose death means their families and dependents suffered from food shortage at the family level. In some cases, the families of the deceased farmers or cattle rearers have no option than to move to internally displaced persons camps where their source of food could be guaranteed for some time by the Government. Thus when farmers are killed, farming system is disrupted.

Kidnapping of farmers

This is another devastating impact of banditry where farmers were kidnapped when they go to the farm to work. In case where famers were kidnapped, they were taken to the forest and will not be released till large sums of moneys are paid as ransom. This payment of ransom impoverishes the famers and in some cases the farmers had no option but to sell their properties including their farmlands to get money to pay ransom. In Dandume LGA some of the farmers in the villages sold their farmlands to buy a house at Dandume town to escape kidnapping. One of the most recent cases of kidnapping was at Mallamawa village of Jibia LGA on 4th October 2020, where 22 farmers working on the farmlands were kidnapped while some managed to escape (Ibrahim, 2020). One of the farmers that narrowly escaped lamented that: “In these villages, we depend mostly on two things as source of livelihood farming and cattle rearing. Farming has become difficult due to insecurity. Domestic animal rearing has also become difficult as bandits have rustled our cattle and presently they are abducting us on our farms. Am calling on the government to come to our aid as we cannot migrate to the cities since we have no job to do in the cities and all that we have are in the villages. Anybody that is used to village life cannot stay in the city as the city consumes wealth”.

Chasing farmers out of their farms

Bandits chased farmers out of their farms when they saw them working there. As the bandits were well armed they ran after the famers on their motorcycle with the intention to hurt or kill and the farmer had no option than to run since the farmers were not armed. For example, on the week of 3rd of May 2020 at the outskirts of Maigora, Sabon Layin Galadima and Unguwar Tsamiya villages of Faskari LGA some farmers were on their farmland in preparation for the farming season when they were chased out by the bandits telling them “who said to you there will be farming this season?’’ From these incidences of chasing farmers out of their farmlands, other farmers became scared to begin preparation for the farming season as the bandits even moved in broad day light on their motorcycles to see if there was any evidence of farming activity to destroy it. In certain instances it was the sound of gun shots coming from the forest or sound of gun shot in the air that chased farmers out of their farmlands. This was the instance outside Shekewa and Yargamji villages of Batsari LGA in the first week of October 2020.

Seizing of farmlands

This occurs where farmlands are located very close of the forest hideout of the bandits. It also occurs outside villages that have been completely deserted due to incessant attacks by the bandits. The bandits seize the farmlands and use them as grazing fields for the large number of cattle they acquired illegally through cattle rustling activities. In some areas where the bandits have not seized the farmlands, the bandits drive their cattle into the farmlands to eat up crops that have started to germinate after the first rains were recorded. This was the case between 10th – 12th May 2020 at farmlands located outside Gauren Dutse, Yar Laraba and Shekewa villages of Batsari LGA. Theft of cattle Bandits engage in theft of cattle or cattle rustling in all the five LGAs sampled for the study. When the bandits attack villages, they shot sporadically into the air to scare away the villagers and create an atmosphere of chaos as the villagers run for safety. The bandits then direct a group among them that specialize in cattle theft to enter the houses and steal cattle from where they are kept. Besides farming, cattle’s rearing is another source of livelihood in the villages. Therefore the theft of cattle deprives the villagers of their source of livelihood and halt cattle rearing activities. It deprives the villagers of source of farm labour use to make ridges to plant crops. According to the Focus Groups the large farmlands in the LGAs were cultivated with the use of oxen and since they were rustled such large farmlands were left uncultivated. Theft of cattle also deprives the villagers’ of the source of manure for their farmlands. In Safana LGA, for example, the bandits rustled 110 cows and 350 goats and sheep during series of attacks in the month of July 2020 on the village of Kunkunna in June and July 2020.

Burning and raiding of grain silos

During large scale attacks that involve large number of bandits which lasted for some hours, the bandits engaged in the burning of local grains silos (called rumbu in Hausa language). These grain silos contained foodstuffs that were stored by the farmers which could last for many months but were burnt by the bandits which created lack of food for the villagers. In some cases, the grain silos were raided and the food stolen by the bandits creating a food scarcity in the households. The bandits also burgled local shops that sold foodstuffs and stole the food items which made foodstuffs to be scarce even in the local shops of the villages. Example here includes the attack on Dankar and Tsauwa villages of Batsari LGA on 14th February 2020. The attack on Unguwar Gizo in Faskari LGA on 29th May 2020 is another example of these kinds of attacks.

Blocking of local farming /trade routes

These are local trade routes that are found along roads linking rural markets where buyers and sellers of foodstuffs pass through especially on market days. The bandits blocked such routes to intercept the vehicles with the traders inside. The bandits snatched foodstuffs intended for sale at the markets; money meant for the purchase of foodstuffs or even kidnapped the traders till large sums of monies were paid. For example, on Sunday 5th January 2020, the bandits blocked a section of Jibia to Batsari road to kidnap 38 traders returning from Jibia weekly market. Also on three consecutive days 21st, 22nd and 23rd February 2020, the bandits mounted a road block along Runka to Marina road in Safana LGA to rob travelers of their money and cell phones. On 20th October 2020 the bandits again blocked the Danmusa to Runka road to rob traders coming to the weekly market at Runka, Safana LGA. In certain cases, the bandits even attacked the weekly markets where these traders meet to exchange their goods for money. For example, on the 17th October, 2020 the bandits attacked Gurbi weekly market in Jibia LGA killing two traders, injuring one woman and kidnapping some people who came to the market on that day. The (Table 3) shows selected bandits activities and attacks and their impacts on food security. From Table 3, it can be observed that there are serious threats posed by banditry to food production in all the five LGAs. Since November 2019, the attacks have affected food security as bandits chased out farmers from their farms which affected harvesting of crops. The movement of bandits on motorcycles armed with guns close to areas where fishing and irrigation farming are taking place has adversely impacted on these activities. From the table, it can also be observed that the bandits engaged in killing, kidnapping, burning and stealing of foodstuffs and domestic animals. All the activities shown above have negatively impacted on food security. In villages where the bandit’s attacks are incessant or there are real threats of attacks, many people especially women and children flee such areas to become internally displaced persons (IDPs) who take shelter at IDP camps or at the houses of friends and relations. On the date of the field visit to Faskari IDP, 10th October 2020 the number at the camps was 1,123 persons that fled from eight villages. The IDPs depended on the food provided by the local and state governments which to a large extent was not adequate. Also some of the IDPs that stayed with friends and relatives eat from the food cooked in the houses which made the food inadequate. According to the respondents in Dandume town, most of the large scale farmers that produced large amount of crops had abandoned farming due to the threats of attacks on the farm lands and at their homes in villages. Also the threat of kidnapping had forced the large scale farmers to abandoned farming in Dandume and Faskari LGAs and fled for safety at nearby Funtua town.

2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Conflict theory

The theory guiding the research work is conflict theory.

Conflict theory explores the power dynamics that create social and economic inequality in different contexts — Everything from poverty and social conflict, to revolutions and war. German philosopher Karl Marx first proposed the theory in the 19th century, arguing that competition over limited resources was inherent in society.

Conflict theory holds that different groups within a society are perpetually competing for limited resources and power — resulting in the powerful dominating the powerless.

The relevance of this theory to this study depict the never ending conflict between herdsmen who are now transformed into bandit and farmers in rural communities. The underlying scramble for grazing resources for livestock and the struggle to protect farm crops which is the survival mechanism of farming communities.