EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS LEARNING: A CASE OF STUDY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IKENNE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OGUN STATE

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Commonly used Drugs

In Nigeria, concern over the possible increase of drug abuse, especially among the youth has led to few survey carried out to ascertain the type of drug used. A study carried out by Kyalo and Mbugua, (2011) on drug abuse by students in secondary schools in Murang‟a County indicated that the use of tobacco and alcohol are more common than the use of other substances such as cannabis (bhang), Khat (miraa) and other illicit substances.

They use cough mixtures, tranquilizers, sedatives, sleeping pills, eye drops among others. They fake illness to access these drugs from either their school health facilities or hospitals. Use of inhalants such as glue and cigarette lighter fuels are also on the increase. In some cases illicit brew such as „changaa‟ is also smuggled into the school Kyalo and Mbugua, (2011). A recent report states that the students are increasingly using a new drug called „Kuber‟ which is a mixture of „tobacco‟ and „bhang‟ Kikuvi, (2009).

Information gathered from teachers in some selected schools especially high cost schools indicate that children carry spirits sometimes mixed with fruit juices, sweets, glucose, ice, tea and other drugs to school. This is taken during their free time or in between lessons, hence a drunken student body MOEST, (2015).

A study carried out by Otieno, (2009) on drug abuse in Kisumu town interviewed 458 students in 9 secondary schools in Kisumu district and concluded that students used alcohol, tobacco, khat, cannabis and cocaine which had risen drastically in the previous decade. By age 15, according to the study, some students were found to have already started using drugs and by the time they are 19, 33 percent males and females had already become drugabusers.

From the above studies it is apparent that much has not been done to determine the commonly abused drugs among secondary school students. It is therefore essential to carry out this study and determine other unique drugs that may be abused by secondary school students in Ikenne Local Government Area.

1. Causes of DrugAbuse

Some of the reasons why students abuse drugs are as follows:

1. PeerPressure

Peer pressure where each student wants to associate self with the colleagues who use drugs. According to the United Nations, (2013), drug users like other people seek approval for their behaviour from the peers, whom they attempt to convince to join them in their habit as a way of seeking acceptance. While conducting an assessment on substance and drug abuse in Nigerian schools, Gatonye, (2006) observed that peer pressure has a negative or a positive impact depends on the quality of the peer group. Unfortunately, the same peer pressure that will act to keep a group within an accepted code of behavior can also push a susceptible individual down the wrong path. A study carried out by Kyalo and Mbugua, (2011), on narcotic drug problems in Murang‟a South District of Nigeria, a case study of drug abuse bystudents in secondary schools noted that a majority of the drug users have friends who use drugs, and even in school they gang together to plan how to get the drugs. This takes most of their time for study since all these are done in secret usually preps time.

Muma, (2008) conducted studies on the influence of drug abuse on discipline amongst students in secondary schools in Ikenna and agreed that there is a significant relationship between the subjects drug using behavior and involvement of their friends in drugs. According to him, if an adolescent associates with other adolescent who use drugs, the risk of involvement with drugs is furtherincreased.

Another survey of youth in Southern Nigeria, also found that the source of drug using students was drug using friends in the same or neighboring schools. An investigation into strategies used in addressing drug abuse problems, a case study of Nairobi provincial boys‟ secondary schools was also carried out by Imbosa, (2002) and observed that students who reported using drugs had more drug using than abstinent friends,. Confirming this findings, Kiiru, (2004) in his study on „youth in peril‟; alcohol and drug abuse in Nigeria, argues that peer pressure influences youthsto use substances under the false impression that some drugs stimulates appetite for food, increase strength, and give wisdom as well as courage to facelife.

1. Parental or Family Influence and Drug Abuse among theYouth.

A number of students are motivated to copy the behaviour of drug use from parents who either smoke or drink alcohol, to the point that some become worse than their parents; much has been said and written about the relationship between the home environment and drug use. The family especially the parents are the child‟s basic socializing agents where they are moulded from the tender age. Muchemi, (2013) indicates that a child gains his or her first standard of behaviour from the teachings of

parents and other grownup persons around. He further argued that if the child observes a disjuncture between „parent‟s teachings and practices‟ it creates doubts which is carried out into adolescence giving rise to a deviant behaviour. Shoemaker, (2004) carried out a study on theories of delinquency; an examination of explanation of delinquent behaviour in New York and associated delinquency for example alcohol and marijuana abuse with lax, inconsistent or abusive parental discipline. The nature of parent, child interaction and the general atmosphere within the home is consistently related to delinquency among the youth. Furthermore, having a parent with a drug problem increases the chances of developing the same problem in the offspring. Other studies looked at issues related to the family and use of drugs has related to the youths. Darcis, (2012) carried out a Rapid Situation Analysis (RSA) study in Nigeria and found that being male in an unstable family was associated with high risk for substance abuse. There was support for this argument from clinical findings on substance use among students and out of school youth in an urban areas of Nigeria which showed that cannabis abusers tend to be young men, including students who had been deprived of parental supervision and warmth when they were young Obot, (2010).

A survey report by NAFDAC, in 2004 indicates that young people between 10 and 24 years whose parents used or sold alcohol and other drugs, they were likely to abuse these substances. According to Field, (2010), preventing poor children becoming poor adults; a report of the independent review on poverty and life chance notes thatat times youth, including students who sell on behalf of parents, are themselves exposed to substance abuse in duecourse.

Kikuvi, (2009) asserts that adolescent with substance abusing parents experience a high rate of parental and family problems those adolescents whose parents do not abuse substance. This may cause poor parents- child attachment, which may in turn lead to lack of commitment to convectional activities thereby at times leading to adolescent drug taking. Imbosa, (2002) adds that youths with poor home support tends to seek support and understanding elsewhere. Many find affection, understanding and support in the life-style of a drug abuse sub-group.

1. Mass Media

Society is constantly bombarded with mass media messages by way of television, radio, newspapers and online. News outlets have limited space to dedicate to issues, but illicit drugs are clearly newsworthy. In spite of the media being identified almost ten years ago as a “new battleground” for the alcohol and other drug sector, Oteyo and Kariuki, (2009), knowledge remains scant on the nature of news media reporting. How much space is devoted to drugs, how issues are framed, who speaks and who fails to speak. Even less is known about the impacts of news media on attitudes towards drugs, particularly on those who are most likely to use illicit drugs - youth. Other fields have demonstrated that media reporting related to violence, body image and tobacco smoking can have a potentially powerful and even dangerous influence upon attitudes and behaviour. We also know that, common assumptions aside, youth remain active consumers of traditional news media such as newspapers and televisionnews.

Social pressure from media and friends is a universal risk factor for substance abuse among adolescents in developed and developing countries Limo, (2012). This especially common in urban areas where there is a wide spread exposure to advertising on radio, television, and billboards. Young people in urban areas are more exposedtoimagespromotingtobaccoandalcohol,thantheircounterpartsinrural areas. Muma, (2008) concurs with this argument asserting that external pressures especially the media have an influence in substance abuse among the youths. According to him, the amount of time people spend watching television has a negative influence on their behavior.

1. Availability of the Drugs

Availability and cost of drugs is associated with drug abuse. In his baseline report on „youth in peril‟; alcohol and drug abuse in Nigeria, Kaguthi, (2004) noted that availability of illegal drugs such as heroine, cocaine and mandrax together with the availability of legal substances such as cigarettes and alcohol may lead to drug abuse. The ready availability of most drugs appears to be the most important cause of the prevalence substance use and abuse amongst the Nigerian youth. For instance medicines (drugs) are purchased from chemists even without a physician‟s prescription. Kithi, (2007) on drug peddlers warned of citizen arrest in Nairobi areas, hesupports this by stating that addicts are reported to visit chemists to get close of Roche – a drug that should be strictly sold on prescription in Lamu town. Kaguthi, (2004) established that widely used substances are grown, manufactured and distributed; they are openly exposed to the youths. Cheap and unclean alcohol like chang‟aa is readily available among students from the poor population.

According to Masese et al., (2012) while conducting a study on the extent and panacea for drug abuse and indiscipline in Nigeria, Kisumu County learning institutions, it was revealed that most of the students who participated in the study used illegal drugs because of their availability. It also observed that availability of illegal drugs promoted the interests of those who are in a position to benefit financiallyfromsellingthem.Theresearchersarguedthatifthereiseasyaccessof drugs, a student may decide to abuse them despite the governing rules that prohibit the use ofdrugs.

A survey carried out by the National Agency for the Campaign Against Alcohol and Drug Abuse, NAFDAC, (2012) on rapid situation assessment of the status of the drug and substance abuse in Nigeria noted that drug accessibility was found to be one of the major contributing factors of drug abuse in Nigeria. Traditional liquor is the most easily available type of alcohol followed by wines and spirits and chang‟aa.

Chang‟aa was found to be easily accessible in Western Nigeria, followed by Nyanza and the least accessible in Northern Eastern. Traditional liquor was found to be most accessible in Coast followed by Western and least accessible in North Eastern. Wines and spirits were found to be most accessible in Nairobi followed by Central and least accessible in North Eastern. Kuber was found to be easilyaccessible in Nyanza followed by Nairobi and least accessible in Central. Miraa (khat) was most accessible in Nairobi and least accessible in Nyanza. Bhang was found to be easily accessible in Nairobi and least accessible in North Eastern. Cocaine and heroine were most accessible in Coastal region and least accessible in North Eastern. Of major concern from NAFDAC, (2012) report is the decline in age atwhichtherespondentrevealedtheirinitiationintodrugs,thedataforthoseaged10

– 14 years old showed an increase from (0.3) per cent in 2007 to (1.1) percent in 2012 for those reporting ever using bhang. This was recorded among rural, male, in school and low economic status categories. In Bungoma East L.G.A., for instance NAFDAC, (2012) established that as many as (50) percent households are involved in brewing, buying and reselling of brews; thus increasing access to alcohol by children.

1. Effects of Drug Abuse on Attitude towards learning

Drug abuse leads students to have behavioural problems such as fatigue, stress, anxiety, bullying and even committing murder Maithya, (2009). Students under the influence of drugs could even beat up their teachers, rape them or kill their colleagues Kyalo and Mbugua, (2011). In Tigania Sub County, Miraa chewing had formed a counter culture within the school with both teacher and students being habitual chewers of the (Miraa) Khat. This hinders them from improving their attitude towards learning, Wanja(2009).

Declining grades, absenteeism from school and other activities, and increased potential for dropping out of school are problems associated with adolescent substance abuse. A study by Horwood et al., (2010) on cannabis use and educational achievement; findings from three Australasian cohort studies found that low level of commitment to education and higher truancy rates appear to be related to drug abuse among students. Again drugs abused affect the brain; these results in major decline in the functions carried out by the brain Abot,(2005).

Drugs affect the students‟ concentration span, which is drastically reduced and boredom sets in much faster than for nondrug and substance abusers. The students will lose concentration in school work including extra-curriculum activities. Most of the psychoactive drugs affects the decision making process of the students; creative thinking and the development of the necessary life and social skills are stunted. They also interfere with the awareness of an individual‟s unique potential and interest thus affects their career development Kikuvi, (2009) cognitive and behavioral problems experienced by drug using youths may interfere with their attitude towards learning and also present obstacles to learning for their classmates United Nations, (2008). Drug abuse is associated with crime maintenance of an orderly and safe school atmosphere conducive to learning. It leads to destruction of school property and classroom disorder.

Drug and substance abuse have far reaching ramifications for instance, according to the survey by NAFDAC, (2012) with a sample of 632 children, it was found out that (6) percent have engaged in sex while on drugs (7.3) per cent for boys and (4.4) per cent for girls) and the median age at sexual debut being estimated at 11 years. An assessment of the situation during the first sexual intercourse indicatesthe (30)percenthadsexunwillingly. Further,about(20)percentweregivenincentives to lure them into sexual act, with a further (80) per cent reporting having taken drugs before their first sexual encounter. These early introduction into illicit sex goes a long way in impacting negatively on their self-esteem exposing them to dangers of early pregnancy, contracting STI‟s and AIDS, declining attitude towards learning and ultimately dropping out of school all together Maithya, (2009). According to Desmone et al. (2006) carried a study on drinking and attitude towards learning in high schools found out that by introducing a large vector of covariates which control for heterogeneity between alcohol consumers and non-consumers; the negative causal relationship; between alcohol and attitude towards learning remain significant for heavy drinking. In line with these results, Kariuki and Oteyo, (2009) report that heavy drinking has an impact on schooling achievements by reducing time spentstudying.

Advanced brain scan imaging has proven that the human brain is not fully developed at puberty, as previously thought with maturation occurring as late as twenty four years as observed by Eisenstein, (2009) in his study on youth and drugs in Brazil. Common drug use has the effects on the brain that impact academic learning which includes; difficulty in concentrating, inability to process information and problem with working memory United nations, (2013). Getting intoxicated can have negative impact on cognitive function; that is, concentration, memory, attention for forty eight hours. Another study conducted by Kinyua, (2011) on critical success in factors that influence student‟s attitude towards learning in public secondary schools in Gatundu District, Nigeria observed that the ability to study is impaired by drug and substance abuse hence could give negative impact on the ability to perform in exams. Heavy drinking by students lead to positive blood alcohol level affecting them whether they can get up for class and if they do the quality of how information is processed and ultimately stored. Sleeping of buzz, a common practice interfereswith sleep cycle, resulting to increased anxiety jumpiness and irritability the next day Maithya, (2009). The use of Marijuana suppresses neutral activity in the hippocampus resulting in problem with attention, memory and concentration. It significantly increases heart rate, weakens the heart muscle and affects blood pressure (Ansary et al., 2009).

Drug abuse has social and emotional implication; with multiple risk factors is more likely to lead to addiction and affect the academic standing. The people whom students associate with and how they behave are often visible indicators or risk trying drugs as well as possible signs of current drug use. Stealing, cutting off from school, cheating and general disregard for social norms are common behaviors bonding the members on drug abuse as noted by Goodman, (2009) in his social work with drug and substance users. Schooling is also impacted in that drug using parents value time commitment and resource availability for their child‟s education which may be much less than minimal.

According to Ndetei, (2004), in his study on the linkages between drug abuse, injecting drugs used and HIV/AIDS in Nigeria, drug abuse affects a person‟s health as well as human behaviour. Implications of drug abuse among the learners include juvenile delinquency, poor performance, immorality, HIV infection, culture of violence, strikes, destruction among the users and country losing important human resources. Most of the studies done by different scholars in the country have majorly concentrated on drug abuse and how they affect the behaviors of the students in their schools. However, there are few studies that have ever sought to address the problem of drug abuse in secondary schools and therefore the current study seeks to investigate the effects of drug abuse on senior secondary school students’ attitude towards learning and mitigation measures to be put in place to curb this menace in Ikenne Local Government Area, Ogun state, Nigeria.

1. Measures Taken to Curb Drug Abuse in PublicSchools

Drug abuse is increasing day by day among the secondary school students and may have greatly contributed to poor performance in examinations as well as undermining academic ability and performance among students NAFDAC, (2006). A number of measures have been put in place by schools purposely to curb drug abuse. During the Heads of Secondary Schools meeting under the umbrella organization (KSSHA) in Ikenna in 2008, they recommended education and control measures that need to be put in place to get drug free environments.

Maithya, (2009) explained that the most commonly used methods in Nigeria are guidance and counseling, summoning of parents or guardians to school, suspension, heavy punishment, expulsion, invitation of resource person and drug awareness campaigns. According to the study, he recommended that this should be strengthened in life skills, teaching on drug use and abuse as a subject, organizing seminars and debates within theschool.

A study by Wamuyu, (2004) in Starehe district among teachers and students on measures put in place to curb drugs and substance abuse in their schools; he found that some drug awareness campaigns were conducted in their respective schools, teachers confirmed that the guidance and counseling was being used to curb the problem and teachers reported that the most common way of dealing with drug cases was punishment. In most cases the punishment is suspension or expulsion for notorious cases. He further observed that there were impromptu searches in classes; dormitories and when the students are going back to school. A few schools usedmass media as a way of passing information on drugs and substances abuse to students. Some obtain materials on drug use for the students while a few others invite the resource persons to talk to the students.

In a similar study carried out by Imbosa, (2002) in six secondary schools in Nairobi with the aim of finding out the strategies and programs used in schools to increase drug awareness and curb their use and abuse, the study involved both students and teachers and established that, drug use and abuse occurred in the student population as result of complex range of factors including parental engagement in substance abuse, depression, anxiety, learning difficulties and low self-esteem all which are beyond the scope of the programs in place by the schools to address the problem. Based on this findings , the researcher recommended that a comprehensive study of drug use and abuse should be carried out, after which a detailed drug policy should be developed encouraging smooth planning, implementation and evaluation of the prevention, intervention and actionstrategies.

According NAFDAC, (2006) it is possible and desirable for schools to be concerned with drug demand reduction, drug supply reduction and mitigating the real and social consequences of drug use with major focus on demand reduction. However, education authorities shouldn‟t accept the sole responsibility for changing students‟ healthy behaviour including drug abuse. Walter, (2011) conducted a study on the growth of youth gang problem in United States and concluded that the primary role of school is to teach skills, to impart knowledge, and establish a sound value base in relation to health and drug use, not to change the behaviour that may be determined by factors beyond the influence of the school and the attitude towards learning.

It is noted that several studies have been carried out on drug and substance abuse in this country. These studies have shown that drug abuse is rampantin secondary schools. However, not much has been documented on explaining what is done on the ground to curb the menace. The proposed study will focus on measures put in place in schools to curb the menace hence improve on attitude towards learning and specifically in Ikenne L.G.A.

1. TheoreticalFramework

This study is guided by Albert Bandura‟s social cognitive theory (1977). The theory puts emphasis on acquisition of social behaviors through observation of other people‟s behaviors in a social context. Therefore, behaviour change is influenced by mainly three things; environment, people and the behaviour. According to the theory, observing other people engage in behaviors that seem attractive leads to desire to engage in the same behaviour. This theory emphasis on cognitive process that promote learning of behaviour. Apart from cognitive processes acquisition of behaviour also depend on the environment and the behaviour itself. This means that people determine the behaviour they wish to acquire, but they are also influenced by the environmentalfactors.

The environment includes both physical and social environment. Social environment includes people that we frequently get into contact with daily. The social cognitive theory postulates that role modeling affects behaviour acquisition and shaping of the behaviors in the society. Pupils, who engage in drug abuse, most likely learn the behaviour from the environment. The teachers and adults in the society are the role models for pupils. In case, they get involved in drug abuse, the pupils may desire to engage in such behaviors. Social cognitive theory is relevant to the proposed study as it forms the basis for studying the factors that determine the development of behaviouramongpupils.Thebehaviorscouldbeinfluencedbytheirgender,ageand social pressure from the peers they interact in the schools. Out of curiosity, pupils choose to do risky activities making them vulnerable to drug abuse. The theory also explains that the external influences affect behaviour through cognitive processes. Future humans‟ behaviour is guided by their capability to form symbols. As such, a person can model an observed behaviour. It is through understanding people‟s perception of reality and we can understand their behaviors and change them.