EFFECTS OF THE USE OF REWARD AND PUNISHMENT ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN SOME SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOL

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in four sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Empirical Review and
• Summary of Literature review

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The concept of Reward.

There are many debates over which method should be applied in learning to bring about desirable change in behaviour. Thus, some psychologists argued that only reward should be applied and not with punishment while others were of the view that both reward and punishment should be applied as means of controlling behaviours of the students by the classroom teachers (Udoh, 2009).

However, there is a consensus among many scholars that the problems lie not on the effect of the two concepts but in the administration of them. According to Udoh (2009), reward is defined as a levy word that is nearly synonymous with reinforcement. In other words, it is used to describe the intent of someone providing consequences for behaviour, rather than the effectiveness of a consequences in influencing the frequency of probability of occurrence of a particular behaviour. The implication of this understanding is that reward does not always produce the desired effect of achieving the aim of the person giving it.

Awoniji (2005) presented reward as the process of reinforcing as well as stimulating desirable acts in an individual. It is also seen as a positive reinforcement and a nice motivation technique (Clifford, 2001). Succinctly, the reward is something given to someone for exhibiting a desirable behaviour.

Types of Reward

There are two major types of rewards according to Udoh (2009) which include:

1. Material Reward and
2. Non-material Reward.

Material Reward:- This consists of tangible or concrete things that are given to an individual for behaviour he or she exhibited or performed. Within the educational setting, these material rewards take the form of prizes of gifts like baile-point, pens, pencils, books, erasers, ruler, drinke, clock, calculator, computer, and sometimes money.

Non-material Reward:- These are those things that are not tangible or concrete. They cannot be seen or touched with hands. These include praises, gesturing like tomb-up, clapping of hands, use of simile, handshaking, exemption, from manual labour award of scholarship, use of pleasant or encouragement words, promotion, giving marks or grades, to mention a few.

Reward can be further divided into different types depending on the number of the persons that gives or receives the reward. (Nwachukwu, 2007). Under these groupings, we have individual reward or group reward. Though, any of these types can still take the form of either material or non-material reward. Other types of rewards are:

1. Immediate reward
2. Continues reward and
3. Intermittent reward. (Nwachukwu, 2007).

Each of these can equally take the form material or non-material reward and can also be in divided or group reward.

Concept of Punishment

American Psychological Association (APA, 2007) defines punishment as a painful, unwanted, or undesirable event or circumstance imposed on an person as a penalty. In operant conditioning, it is used as a process whereby the relationship, or contingency between a response and some stimulus or circumstance results in the response becoming less probable. For example, if a pigeon’s peck on a key were occasionally followed by presentation of food, it will establish some probability of pecking. Conversely, if each peck produces a brief electric shock (with the other conditions remain as before) and the pecking declines punishment is said to have occurred. Thus, the shock is refered to as punishment.

According to Essuman,(2008), punishment is defined as the addition of an aversive stimulus to a situation or the withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus from a situation as a result of a certain response. It is to be noted that punishment can also mean the introduction of obnoxious stimulus, or the reward of positive reinforcers following a behaviour with the intent of bringing about a reduction if not cessation of the targeted behaviour, Usually, the targeted behaviour must have been adjusted as undesirable by the person administering he punishment.

Furthermore, Holth, (2005) defines punishment as any change in a human or animals surroundings that occurs after a given behaviour or response which reduces the likelihood of that behaviour occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is punished. Whether a change is, or is not, punishment is only known by its effect on the rate of the behaviour, not by any “hostile” or aversive features of the change. For example, painful stimulation which would serve as a punishment in many cases serves to reinforce some behaviours of the masochist.

Types of Punishment

Obiekezie (2008), was of the view that there are many types of punishment. The most widely used one is the corporal punishment according to him, corporal punishment involves inflicting bodily pain to an offender or offenders, e.g may be in form of beating, slapping, flogging, and boxing etc.

However, many psychologists and even non-psychologists criticized and condemned the application of corporal punishment as a way of controlling undesirable behaviours. This is due to its negative consequences which include the child’s development of negative attitudes by seeing the use of harsh, cruel and inhuman on the part of the punisher.

Punishment may also take the form of individual punishment, ie; when only a person is given the punishment or group punishment where a group is involved like the teacher punishing a group of students. Punishment can equally be immediate, continuous or intermittent (Nwachukwu, 2007). It is to be noted that a particular punishment can take more than one or two forms. It means that one punishment may be of varied types at the same time. Other forms of punishment are the direct and indirect punishment. Some examples of such punishment are:-

1. Flogging
2. Scolding
3. Seizure of items
4. Keeping the offender standing
5. Keeping the offender kneeling
6. Suspension or Expulsion of the offender
7. Isolation of the offender etc.

(Udoh 2009).

The Concept Of Academic Performance

Academic performance means how well one does in school. Poor grades are considered bad academic performance .According to Cambridge University Report (2013), Academic performance is frequently defined in terms of examination performance. Academic achievement refers to what skills the student has learned as is usually measured through assessments like standardized tests, performance assessments and portfolio assessments. Santrock (2016).

The assessments provide information of the students’ academic performance across time. Academic performance which is measured by the examination results is one of the major goals of the school. Hoyle (2016) argued that schools are established with the aim of imparting knowledge andskills to those who go through them and behind all this is the idea of doing good in academic performance.

Effect of Reward and Punishment on Academic Performance of Students.

Many educators and researchers have different views on the effects of rewards and punishment in teaching and learning situation (Walker, 2005). He also maintained that the two approach can have positive and negative effect depending on manner and extent of administration on the receiver. Thus, punishment can reduce undesirable behaviour while reward can motivate on learner to learn more and increase the interest for learning. On the other hand, reward can bring about healthy and unhealthy competition among students which can promote students performance and on the other hand discourage participation. (Alkinson, 2007).

According to Cameron, (2011), teachers can use rewards to let his or her students achieve a better learning motivation, while according to Deci (2001) reward do not increase a student intrinsic motivation to learn. Shi (2005) also maintained that students need to develop and refine their own learning strategies in order that they can benefit fully from the variety of learning situation which they meet as students. Thus, the use of rewards and incentives may destroy students’ intrinsic motivation to perform activities.

Shi, (2005) further opined that reward is good in educational setting and any other social setting, but if not carefully offered, may encourage students to compare their own performance with that of peers. This social comparison may possibly affect a child’s developing perception of success.

Reward can also increase the student’s interest in achieving a certain level of educational goal. For instance when a teacher or even a parent promise their students that they will be rewarded with a tangible material if anybody make “8” (eight) credits including English and Mathematics is WAEC. The students will try to work hard in order to achieve the target and be rewarded. In order words, rewards encourage hardworking among the students. (Gregory, 2012).

Relationship between Reward and Punishment.

Gregory (2012) was of the view that reward and punishment have positive relationship in social setting in that both are used as approaches in achieving a desirable goal setting. In educational setting for instance, reward makes a student to exhibit certain desirable behaviour or performance. In other words, it makes them work or study very hard so as to accomplish a certain task. It facilitates students, motivation. If a child knows that he will get a reward for completing a certain task, he will be motivated to work hard to obtain the reward. On the other hand, punishment discourages the interest of exhibiting on undesirable behaviour or performance. It also encourages learning as well as accomplishment of a certain task like the reward does. If a child knows that he or she will be also be punished for failing to complete a certain education task, he or she will be compelled by that feeling of punishment to accomplish the task so as to escape the punishment. (Gregory, 2012).

Furthermore, reward and punishment promote social co-operation or group co-operation and participation (Ausubel, and Rebinerson (2010). In other words, when a teacher inform the class about the reward or punishment awaiting for them generally if they finish or accomplish a particular task or fail to accomplish the said task, everybody will be motivated to participate in accomplishing such task either to obtain or receive the promised reward or to be exempted from being punished.

Reward and Punishment is use to achieve educational objective and also the teacher use them to achieve his or her lesson objectives (Obikezie, 2008). Nevertheless, reward and punishment discourages interest and intrinsic motivation (Cottoh, 2001). In other words over use of rewards does not encourage intrinsically like wise punishment. Hence punishment induces too much fear in a student which on the other hand makes him or her to fail certain task he would have got right if well motivated intrinsically.

Application of Reward

Bloom (2006), observed that reward is used during or after each learning process. Rewards are given especially to strengthen the tendency for or probability of a given response to occur. It has been observed that, reward does not always necessarily increase the desire behaviour or guarantees its repeat. It is therefore pertinent that a proper application is always done by the teacher so as to achieve the desired goal.

Below are some of the ways reward is to be administered:

1. Teacher should endavour to use verbal reward as it does not cost anything as such but it pays greatly (Nwachukwu and Orji, 2007) .
2. Tangible rewards work with pupils and children.
3. Classmates should be involved in rewarding the colleagues who performed well.
4. There should be variation in the type of rewards being used (Obikezie, 2008).
5. Reward is to follow as much as possible immediately after the performance of the desired behaviour.
6. The object f reward must be a thing of interest to the recipient.
7. The school and other stakeholders should be involved in the giving of tangible reward as much as possible.
8. The reward should be for the individual or group that performed the act.
9. The reason for the reward may be explained.

Application of Punishment

The practice of the teacher’s use of punishment is an age-long practice. Briggs (2007), in his study an effect of reward and punishment, asked high school teachers and principals whether as children, various negative incentive (i.e punishment) and positive ones (e.g reward) had “made them work better, the same, or worse”.

Symonds (2006) was of the view that punishment is inevitable while dealing with the students. If one must give punishment, the following points should be considered:

1. Punishment must be painful or unpleasant to the offender.
2. Different kinds of punishment should be employed.
3. It must come immediately (as much as possible) after the offence is discovered.
4. An explanation on the necessity and appropriateness of the punishment is important.
5. The teacher must always maintain a friendly and warm attitude towards the student being punished.
6. Prolonged punishment like scolding: nagging or threats are to be used as last resort.
7. The teacher must be fair and firm in the administration of punishment.
8. The punishment must be commensurate with the inappropriate behaviour.
9. The health status of the offender must be put into consideration by the teacher or the administrator of punishment.
10. The root cause of the bad behaviour must be tackled.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Operant conditioning or instrumental conditioning theory by B.F Skinner (1938).

Operant conditioning sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavour. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and the consequence for that behaviour.

Skinner’s theory is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. Changes in behaviour are the result of an individual’s responses to events (Stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response (behaviour) produced a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a maths problem. When a particular stimulus response (5-R) pattern is reinforced (reward), the individual is conditioned to respond.

The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviourism, is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus. Another distinctive aspect of skinner’s theory is that it attempts to provide behavioural explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in behaviour modification as well as teaching (ie, classroom management) and instructional development (ie programmed instruction). Skinner believes that practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) which exposes the students to the problem in gradual steps. It also requires that a learner makes a response for every frame and receive immediate feedback, and try to arrange the difficulty of the questions, so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement. The teacher can also ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

The Relevance of Operant Conditioning Theory to the Study

We can find the examples and relevance of operant conditioning theory to the study at work all around us, such as in children completing home work earn a reward from a parent or teacher or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behaviour, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease behaviour. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviours. For example, children may be told that they will lose recess privileges if they make noise in the class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviour.

The principles in Operant Conditioning Theory

1. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will reoccur, intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that response can be reinforced (e.g , shaping).
3. Reinforcement will generalize across similar stimuli (stimulus generalization) producing secondary conditioning.

Components of Operant Conditioning

1. Reinforcers and it kinds
2. Negative Reinforce
3. Intrinsic Reinforce
4. Extrinsic Reinforces and
5. Punishment.
6. Premack Principles (Chukwura, 2009)

Reinforcers

According to (Chukwura, 2009) a reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. Skinner (1938) also talked about negative reinforce, that is many stimulus that results in the increases frequency of a response when it is withdrawn. A great deal of attention was given to schedule of reinforcement and their effects on establishing behaviour. Skinner’s theory focused on the relation between behaviour and their consequences. For example, if an individual’s behaviour is immediately followed by pleasurable consequences, the individual will engage in that behaviour more frequently. One very important principle of behaviour learning theories is that consequences that follow behaviours closely in time affect behaviour far more than delayed consequences do. Reinforcement must be contiguous in time and space. A smaller reinforcer that is given immediately generally has a much larger effect than does a large reinforcement that is given later. It makes clear the connection between behaviour and consequence, and it increases the informational value of the feedback. In practice, few classroom teachers can provide individual feedback immediately to their entire student. However, the same results can be obtained by giving students answers right after they completed their work. Immediacy of reinforcement is important to teaching, but so is the decision as to what – to reinforce. When teachers guide students towards goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success, they are using a technique called shaping. The term shaping is used in behavioural learning theory to refer to the teaching of new skills or behaviours by reinforcing learners for approaching the desired final behaviour. The use of pleasant and unpleasant consequence to change behaviours referred to as operant conditioning (Markle, 2009). See Skinner and his experimental box. Skinner (1938) conducted series of experiments using rats to teach them how to gel food. He also taught – Pigeon how to play piano by peaking on the keys. Thus, he maintained that only behaviour that is reinforced was repeated. Others were discriminated because of lack of reinforcement.

Premack Principles:

This is another component of operant conditioning theory (Premack, 2004). The principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by David Premack (2004), which states that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforce for a less preferred activity. In order words, access to something desirable is made contingent on doing something less desirable. For example, a teacher might say, “As soon as you finish your work, you may go outside” or “clean up your art project.” This is an example of Premack principle

2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Junis and Feshbach (2006) carried out a study on the effect of punishment and reward on student’s performance. Where Survey research design was adopted. Questionnaire was used as an instrument for data collection. 300 respondents were randomly selected as sample of the study, with arithmetic mean as method of analysis. Thus, their findings revealed that: reward and punishment facilitate learning and condition or control students’ behaviour to a desirable change; commendation; praise, and encouragement were superior to censure, ridicule, threats and punishment. The findings also revealed certain considerations that teachers must observe while administering punishment which emphasized that punishment must be painful or unpleasant to the offenders, that teachers should differentiate and apply different kinds of punishment, to administer a punishment immediately after an offence is discovered. Teachers must explain the necessity of the punishment; the teacher must always maintain a friendly and warm attitude toward the student being punished, prolong punishment, like scolding, nagging or threats are to be used as least resort.

Another study was carried out by Ilegbusi, Ayo and Ikeji n(2013) on the topic “An analysis of the role of Rewards and Punishment in motivating school learning”. Survey research design was used, 4000 respondents were randomly selected as sample of the study; instrument of data collection was questionnaire and mean was applied for analysis of data. Thus, their findings revealed that reward and punishment promote learning, increase students extrinsic motivation to learn and discourage the student’s intrinsic motivation to learn. The findings further revealed that although, punishment does suppress a response, mere non-reinforcement is more effective in permanently elimination of an unwanted response, appropriately combined with rewards, however, punishment may redirect behaviour; under circumstances such as this punishmentmay allow the more permanent effects of rewards to become operant, even though its effect may be temporarily disturbing. Students motivated by fear of punishment will stop work, as has been shown by research studies quoted above, even avoid study once the fear is removed. They will always associate fear of pain with study, and it is not healthy to keep students under a permanent state of siege. The research finding also supported that more service forms of punishment, like thrashing, can effectively supply the punished response of a learner, but they do so by setting up conflicts between the punished response and others evoked by punishing stimulus. In other words punishment says “stop it” but does not tell what to do, and the result is simply confusion and emotional upset.

2.4 SUMMARY OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviewed some literatures under conceptual framework, theoretical framework, and empirical studies. Conceptually, the concepts of reward and punishment; types, relationship and their applications. The study also reviewed operant conditioning theory (Skinner, 1938) and Premacktheory (Premack, 2004). By definition, reward is defined as the process of reinforcing as well as stimulating desirable acts in an individual. Punishment on the other hand is defined as a painful, unwanted, or undesirable event or circumstance imposed on a person as a penalty. It is any change in a human or animals surroundings that occurs after a given behaviour or response which reduces the likelihood of that behaviour occurring again in the further. Example of punishment include flogging, scolding, seizure of items, keeping the offender standing or kneeling. Theoretically, operant conditioning theory of human learning (1938) and Premacktheory (2004) was of the view that operant conditioning as association is made between behaviour and the consequences for that behaviour. The Skinner theory (1938) is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. The principles in operant conditioning theory implies that Behaviour which is positively reinforced will reoccur, intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective; information should be presented in small amounts so that response can be reinforced; reinforcement will generalize across similar stimuli (stimulus generalization) producing secondary conditioning. However, empirical studies by Junis and Feshbach (2006), Ilegbusi, Ayu, and Ikeja (2013) reveal that reward and punishment facilitate learning that condition or control student’s behaviour to a desirable change; commendation; praise, and encouragement were superior to censure, ridicule, threats and punishment. The implication of the study is that both reward and punishment if used arbitrary will not bring about the desirable change in behaviour and vice versa.