EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING STYLES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 CHILDREN’S LEARNING STYLES CHARACTERISTICS

The adjectives which characterize the Learning Styles were the propellants for the development and, later, for the creation of the Portilho/Beltrami Learning Styles Inventory for Children. The lack of specific material for the evaluation of the Children’s Learning Style was a factor which contributed towards creating this instrument directed to small children. There was the need to adapt the qualities and characteristics for each one of the styles of the children’s attributes, also adapting the activities and situations independent of the environment. Integrating the studies about the Learning Styles theory, by Alonso (1984), to the situations experienced by five and six-year old children, it can be stated that the characteristics for each one of the styles are: The child with more features in the active style proves to be cheerful, communicative and quick to perform the tasks or what has been asked, curious, meaning, the child likes to discover new things. The child also prefers to diversify the environment where he/she studies or plays. In the classroom, is the student who, at the same time, works and also talks and does not stay doing the same activity for too long. Their creativity allows doing things which go beyond what was requested. The teacher identifies this student as being the one who is always ready to help both her and the classmates. The student shows enchantment upon new contexts, revealing the desire to learn. In games with the classmates, he/she is the leader, inventing games and activities, and may be considered the “protagonist” of the situations presented. The student is extrovert, enjoying being the center of attention. The student is also responsible for reconciling conflict situations which arise among classmates, willing to help. The child who presents the reflective style as predominant, has the following characteristics: first observes, analyses the environment, and then begins to participate. At school, specifically in the classroom, the teacher identifies as the student who first waits for all the classmates to talk, and only afterwards makes comments or conclusions. This prudence makes the student to consider the alternatives before being exposed. So, the student thinks and analyses the lessons before doing them, and this same attitude is repeated during games. During ludic and fun activities, and games, the student first observes the classmates playing, and only later joins them. Faced with several color options, for example, the student first observes, thinks, and then chooses the one which he/she likes the most. Another feature of this style is that the child likes details: either painting or doing another activity, the child tries to be neat and very careful in order to do the best and in the most perfect way as possible. When the child’s predominant Learning Style is the theoretical, in general, he/she is organized and plans the tasks. When dealing with computer and video game, or playing with classmates, the child starts the activity already knowing what he/she wants and what will do first. This planning is also extended to doing the lessons, as the theoretical child expects the information given by the teacher before starting them. The organization issue may be identified during a puzzle’s assembly, when the pieces are previously separated by the child before the game. Another feature which indicates this style predominance is the fact that the child wants to know the “whys” of the facts, seeking an explanation for everything. The pragmatic style can be identified in children whose attitudes are based on self-confidence and determination upon what has to be done. That means not listening, not taking into consideration what classmates comment about his/her tasks. They are determined and practical, which can be perceived at the time of selecting games, the color to paint a picture, the clothes to go out. The choices are made in a fast, objective and useful manner. These children have autonomy in carrying out tasks. If a problem arises, the pragmatic child wants to resolve the situation right away, likes the practicality of things and the new things that come from the tasks

2.2 THE INVENTORY’S CONSTRUCTION

The instrument we propose was created based on Honey-Alonso’s Questionnaire on Learning Styles (CHAEA), elaborated by Catalina Alonso, translated and adapted to Portuguese in 2003. CHAEA is an instrument for adults, which allows to identify the predominantly Learning Style. It is composed by eighty learning situations, structured in four groups with twenty situations each, respectively related to the four Learning Styles: the active, the reflective, the theoretical and the pragmatic. It should be pointed out that the learning situations are found in CHAEA in an aleatory form; they do not follow any specific sequence. In this questionnaire the person marks the items which he/she most identifies with. For the preparation of the Portilho / Beltrami Learning Styles Inventory for Children, it was necessary to consider aspects referent to the five and six year-old age group, as children in this stage require concrete and illustrative activities. They are, according to Jean Piaget’s epistemological theory (2006), in the pre-operative stage, using mental symbols, images, words to represent objects, people and facts. Therefore, based on Piaget’s studies and professional experience with small children, it is how the Inventory’s structure was drawn up. Thus, there was the need to observe Kindergarten III daily classrooms activities, which is currently 1st grade elementary school, in order to register the main situations which happen with five and six year-old children. On this occasion, important issues were observed, like: the relationship among the children, with the teacher and with the educational environment; the activities done in the classroom; the children's attitudes facing the learning situations, the colleagues and the teacher, choosing materials to perform a task, the children’s behavior while using the computer, among others. Given the range of learning situations, the next stage was to select and define the amount of questions in the inventory. It is worth saying that the time factor influenced in choosing the number of learning situations to be selected, since the children scatter about and tire easily when facing activities which require attention and concentration. There were learning situations selected, each one with four answers, referring to the four styles: active, reflective, theoretical and pragmatic. Aware that the children could mark all the options, in case the children’s inventory presented only written items, which would prevent obtaining data about their learning style, it was established that there would be pictures in order to illustrate the answers. Such decision was taken as an illustration facilitates the visualization of the proposed situation, besides representing a more accessible language to the age group. With the structure of the Portilho/Beltrami Inventory defined, it was necessary to decide, together with the illustrator, important aspects in preparing the pictures. The first decision was according to the standardization of the figures, so choosing the answers would not happen because of the picture. Following, it was decided to use images which would show different ethnicities, cultures and genres. Finally, it was explained to the illustrator the instrument’s dynamics, as well as the main features of each Learning Style. The Portilho/Beltrami Learning Styles Inventory for Children is composed of twelve situations which vary according to the environment: school (classroom), home and birthday party. Each one of the situations is formed by a sentence which explains the situation’s context and four written answers and colorful illustrations corresponding to the four Learning Styles. The learning situations are done on size A4 sulfite sheets, having two situations per sheet. The Portilho/Beltrami Inventory is also made up of a feedback sheet in black and white, which reports all the learning situations. This feedback sheet allows the test giver to record the answers given by the children. There is also the identification sheet with the child’s data, in which the test giver fills out with name, age, sex, teacher’s name, the school, the grade in which the child is at and the activity’s beginning and finishing time. The final sheet is made up of a table with learning situations’ classification, allowing the test giver to identify the predominant Learning Style.

2.3 CHILDREN’S LEARNING STYLES AND THE ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Honey and Mumford identify and classify learning styles into four categories. According to them the categories are activist, theorist, pragmatist and reflector. An activist learns by doing and is practically involved in the learning. They are interested in such activities as role-play, competitions, puzzles, problem solving and group discussions. On the other hand, Honey and Mumford view theorists as learners who focus on the theory behind an action. For them to learn they need models, concepts and facts. Activities for this learning style include the use of models, stories, statistics, quotes and the application of theory. Another category of learning style is the pragmatist. These according to Honey and Mumford are concerned with putting learning into practice. They are concerned with the transfer of learning. They are interested in experimenting as this enables them to try new ideas. Those in this category of learning style enjoy exploring the environment. Activities that help them to learn in this learning style include activities that involve applying learning to real life situations, case studies, problem solving and discussions. Another learning style as noted above is the reflector. According to Honey and Mumford children who fall within this category learn by observing and thinking about what has taken place. They consider solutions from different perspectives, based on collecting data and reaching conclusions based in the data. They use activities that involve paired discussions, observing activities, feedback, and coaching. Leslie, Perry, and Landrum (2000) as cited by Pandya identify at least three models of learning styles that can guide a teacher in the teaching and learning of Science at ECD level. These models are the instructional preference models, information processing models, and personality characteristics. According to Dunn instructional preference models are based on environmental preferences, emotional preferences, sociological preferences, physiological preference and psychological preferences. Children can therefore fall within any of these elements that have an effect on their learning preferences. However, Dunn place emphasis on the learning style model. According to Pandya, the learning style model as postitulated by Dunn and Dunn suggests that “each individual has a biological and developmental set of learning characteristics that are unique [and] improvements in productivity and learning will come when instruction is provided in a manner that capitalizes on an individual’s learning strengths”. The role of the teacher for effective teaching and learning is to adjust his/her approach to accommodate the child’s learning style. The views by Dunn and Dunn mean that the teacher has to consider individual differences among children when planning and teaching a Science lesson. Kolb’s learning style model contains key elements that play a very important role in teaching and learning. An awareness of these modes on the part of the teacher at ECD level assists the teacher in planning for different children who have different learning preferences. The model contains the following modes: concrete experience; reflective observation; abstract conceptualization; and active experimentation (ibid). The different modes cover a wide range of personalities that can be found within an ECD class. The teacher has to assess the children and establish their learning styles. The teacher has to come up with teaching methods that fit into the children’s learning styles. Charlesworth and Lind also note the importance of Fleming’s VARK learning style model. VARK is an acronym for visual learners, auditory learners, reading (writing) learners and kinaesthetic (active) learners. According to Mawere and Musiyiwa, Fleming observed that visual learners learn best through what they see, auditory learners through listening and kinaesthetic learners learn through exploration and experiencing things. These have wide implications for a Science teacher at ECD level. Children have to learn through different teaching methods and approaches. Such approaches include the use of visual objects that can include the actual artefacts being observed and studied. For example, if children are studying plants, they have to see the actual plants. They can identify parts of the plant as they observe the plants. The same lesson can involve manipulative and block play area, and science and discovery play to cater for the different children’s learning needs. To cater for those who prefer auditory learning, the teacher has to plan for children to discuss in groups as a way of developing their verbal skills. Children can be asked to describe properties of water whilst others listen. They do this in turns. They can identify sound from different materials and animals. The teacher can also make use of modern technology such as tapes, radio, video games and tele-conferencing. The teacher also has to plan for kinaesthetic learners who learn best through touching, movement and doing. They learn through music and dance in naming human body parts. They can also help in gardening activities and in the Science and Discovery play area. They can use toys to manipulate as they learn, compare soil grains as they feel and touch. As noted by Clements and Sharma the teaching methods the teacher adopts should provide opportunities for children to explore and discover, so that they learn by doing. Sharma observes that Science is a practical subject which children learn by doing through observation and experiments. However, we should be aware of the pressure that such demands exert on the teacher. This may actual mean planning different lessons and activities for children in the same class. Such expectations also exert pressure on the resources to be used. The support of the school head and community becomes crucial if the teacher is to be successful in teaching as expected in different learning styles.

2.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TEACHER

Learning styles are determined by the areas in which the pupils are strongest. These are visual learners, auditory learners and kinaesthetic learners. These learning styles have an effect on how different children learn. The role of the teacher is to plan for activities within the classroom set-up that cater for the individual differences in children with different learning styles. The differences demand that when teaching, teachers have to provide for the different categories of pupils in the classroom. The different learning styles demand that the teacher engages different approaches and methods of teaching. For the visual learner it is important that the teacher facilitates learning by the use of objects that enhance the acquisition and development of concepts in the child. For example, in the teaching of Mathematics, the use of objects and pictures can enhance the child’s concept on addition or subtraction. Children can learn counting by using the real objects. The other learning style focuses on the auditory learner. This implies that the child in this category learns best through what he/she hears. The teacher has to plan for lessons that promote listening. Such activities include the promotion of group work. Children work in groups where they learn to listen to others and to be listened to. Activities to cater for the auditory learner include story-telling and reading. Such activities should involve the child much more than the teacher. The teacher has to guide in the activities while children play the most active role. When children tell their own stories, they develop both oral skills and listening skills. The teacher has to plan and provide resources and facilities for the kinaesthetic learner. Such a learner has to be an active participant in the learning process. Such resources can come from the local environment through the involvement of parents and communities in school activities. These activities include providing children with opportunities to conduct experiments and to make discoveries. The teacher has to promote outdoor play and ensure that the outdoor play centre is well equipped. The teacher can get outdoor play equipment from the community if the parents are involved in the development of the centre. Good community relations play a pivotal role in the development of the school and ECD centre. To cater for the kinaesthetic learner, the teaching methods have to promote practical activities, outdoor activities and field trips. The different learning styles have to be promoted by the teacher through the use different teaching methods. The central issue in teaching at any level is that the child is the centre of learning. At early childhood development level the need to provide the child with a learning environment that allows the child to discover, explore, manipulate and experiment becomes much greater than in adult learners. Such activities promote the acquisition and development of different skills at a tender age. These contribute to different forms of development within the child which include social development, cognitive development, language development, moral development, and physical development. The teacher has therefore to develop the cognitive domain, psychomotor domain and the affective domain through the different activities that he/she has to expose children. The teacher has to plan for the different styles of learning that are found in children. An analysis of the different methods that are suggested in the Early Childhood Development (ECD) syllabus, as provided by the Ministry of Education in Zimbabwe, are supportive of promoting the different learning styles found in children. To promote the different learning styles, the Ministry of Education advocates for the following methods of teaching and learning: discovery, experimentation, debates, discussions, word games, poems and rhymes, telling and listening to stories, song and dance, role play and drama, group projects, demonstration and field trips. A close look at the different methods and activities that are suggested indicates that the different methods cater for a variety of learning styles. These learning styles include auditory learners, visual learners, kinaesthetic learner and the reading learner. However, whilst it is significant to take care of children’s learning styles it can be argued that children can adapt to different learning styles as long as the environment is conducive. In that regard, if the environment is captivating, the child can adapt and acquire new learning styles

2.5 EFFECTS OF EARLIER EXPERIENCE

Some children embarking, on. their primary school careers in reception class may be judged less o£a 'pleasure to teach' than those who adapt quickly to the demands of school (Tizard et al, 1988) and this has been shown to relate to children's earlier experiences. Reduced teacher expectations may be the result. A number of studies raise different aspects of this issue (eg. Barrett, 1986; Crocker and Cheeseman, 1988; Hutt et al, 1989; Jowett and Sylva, 1986). Whatever the cause, research evidence ( eg. Knight, forthcoming) is indicating that nursery education has a beneficial effect on later SAT scores, and many children are currently denied access to that foundation. A long and rigorous study by Chris Athey (1990) has demonstrated the tenets of Bronfenbrenner's (1979) theory about the beneficial effects of the empowerment of the parent-child 'dyad·;·for in her study parents and staff worked very closely together and the nursery education offered was made relevant, ('fit for the purpose'), by the use of careful observation and recording, and by detailed knowledge of each child's learning styles. Further, two House of Commons Select Committees (HoC, 1989, 1991) have recently endorsed the value of nursery education, one, reporting on standards of reading, stressed that the members of the Committee were 'in no · doubt of the value of nursery education' (p.xii).