FACTORS INFLUENCING AND EFFECT OF EXAMINATION MALPRACTICES IN NIGERIA TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Literature review refers to the critical examination of the state of knowledge, including substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contribution to a particular topic. In line with this definition, the literature reviewed revolved around the exploration of the intrinsic meaning of variables under study.

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

2.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

TERTIARY INSTITUTION

The tertiary institutions is a higher education, a post-secondary section of the national education system of Nigeria was programmed to educate universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, colleges of Technology Technical Colleges and Universities of Technology (section five, paragraph thirty-one of the National Policy on Education (FGN, 2004). Other functions of the tertiary institutions are higher education such as teaching and research, also to be able to develop students' man power and to develop nation. Further, section 5 paragraph 32 of National Policy on Education states that tertiary institution are to perform the following such as development, inculcation of proper value - orientation for the survival of the individuals and society. Also, tertiary education is to help in the area of acquisition of an objective view of the local and external environments of individuals and these could be achieved through teaching research, dissemination of existing and new information and service to the community such as seminars, workshops and educative forum etc.

Tertiary institutions generally are to assist in the development of the nation's development goals. To ensure a success of higher education in Nigeria, though all these functions are still in the tertiary institution. Defining tertiary education may be a little difficult. This is so because it refers to the gamut of all post-secondary educational institutions. It is used synonymously with higher education. These include the University, Polytechnic, College of Education, Vocational Training Centre. Their goals, according to the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2014), include:

1. To contribute to national development through high-level relevant manpower training.
2. To provide physical and intellectual skills which enable individuals to be self-reliant and useful members of the society.

The question of whether tertiary education in Nigeria plays its role (and significantly too) particularly with respect to the essence of education and the goals set for it in the national policy on education should agitate our minds at this point. In more organized societies, tertiary education is acknowledged and respected as the engine house for research and innovations which are fundamental to social and economic transformation. Responsible and informed governments look upto tertiary institutions for empirically based ideas to support policies rather than base such policies on common sense or political consideration as mostly observed in Nigeria. Governments in organized societies fund tertiary institutions to carry out researches on national priorities such as security, warfare, health, agriculture etc. When will governments in Nigeria respect the place of tertiary institutions in this regard? The recurrent face-off between Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) and the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) on the revitalization of the universities looks like the government is being bored in its unwillingness to comprehend the need for a functioning university system nor to fund it.

While playing its primary role of feeding the human mind and liquidating ignorance, tertiary education produces competent managers of available resources. These are persons equipped with appropriate values, thinking, creative and innovative ability and sound knowledge of how the economy can be made to function and grow. One of the major roles of tertiary education as a driver and propeller of the economy is to produce a production-oriented rather than consumption-oriented citizenry.

Examination System in Nigeria

Examination refers to the annual assessment and evaluation of students after they have gained experience (Efe, cited in Nnam, 2015). examination is the pivotal point in which the whole educational system revolves, and the effectiveness or failure of the examination system is an indication of the success or failure of the specific educational system (Olatoye, R. A. (2014). Exams differ in terms of design, rigor, and specifications. In a closed book examination, for example, an examinee is often expected to rely on memory to react to specific objects, while in an open book examination, the examinee can use one or more additional instruments such as reference books or calculators.Exams may be given either formally or informally. A formal assessment would be a final examination given by a teacher in the classroom, while an informal examination would be a reading examination given to a child by an adult. Similarly, regular exams are graded consistently, while non-standard exams are typically more diverse in variety and style. A written examination, multiple choice, completion style, essay, true/false, mathematical query, or success examination could all be included in the examination.Olatoye went on to say that the two fundamental assumptions of any examination worth its name are that (a) it is valid and (b) it is accurate. The two are separate ideas. A exam is said to be valid if it executes the functions for which it was intended, while reliability refers to measurement consistency. In fact, the current inspection scheme and its mode of operation defy all of these hypotheses. The method has degraded to the point that its validity and dependability are in doubt.

Olatoye went on to state that, without a doubt, examination success standards had fallen dramatically in the last ten years or so. Any part of the country's social growth has changed as well. The most upsetting feature of it all is the presence or complicity of school officials, parents/guardians, and exams personnel in exam malpractice. The prevalence of private and special assessment centers for external examinations such as JAMB, WAEC, and NECO are direct examples of non-school administrators' participation in examination malpractice. Obasanjo 1996, cited in Olatoye, R. A. (2014), a former Nigerian President, reported that if educationists and stakeholders do not pay enough attention to the re-orientation and re-channeling of youth at post-primary schools to a more appropriate and dramatic reduction in examination malpractices, the nation's educational quality will rot in pains. According to Onuka, A. O. U., &Durowoju, E. O. (2016), how one comes to gain information, what one comes to know, and why such knowledge is possible is a feature of cognitive learning in schools. As it is known that learning goes hand in hand with malpractice and misconduct in Nigeria and other parts of the world, the students’ cognition is derailed and it is gradually killing the society.

Examination Malpractice

Examination malpractices, according to Otti (2015), are bad activities that are not in accordance with the examination rules and regulations. In conclusion, he said that such malpractices involve any kind of assistance, such as copying from textbooks, notebooks, fellow applicants, or paper tossed into the hall by relatives, colleagues, students, parents, or touts.

Examination malpractice is described as immoral or unethical behavior by anyone during the course of checking an examinee's skill or expertise via questioning (Ikupa, 2017). According to Oluyeba and Daramola (2014), examination malpractice involves any unusual behavior shown by an applicant or someone charged with the conduct of an examination before, after, or after the examination that violates the laws and regulations regulating the conduct of such examination.Examination malpractices, as described by Kibler 2003 and quoted by Ikupa et al (2017), are ways of cheating and plagiarism in which students give or receive unwanted assistance in an academic exercise or receive credit for work that is not their own.

Examination malpractice, according to Olaleye (2006), as quoted in Otti (2015), is "irregular behavior displayed by candidates or others entrusted with the conduct of examination in or beyond the examination space, before, after, or after those exams." This point of view is supported by Azinge (1993) and Imogie (1993), as quoted in Akaranga (2015), who claimed that an examination malpractice is ‘any act of wrongdoing or negligence that contravenes the norms of appropriate practices before, after, or after an examination by someone in any way tantamount to malpractices'. According to Ojerinde (2003), as quoted in Anzene (2014), it is “irregularities that are premeditated and perpetuated by the candidates or their agents with the aim of achieving an unfair advantage in the examinations.”

Causes of Examination Malpractices

On the causes of examination malpractices, Ivowi (2016) noted that in the early 1970s, the "Expo" surge that spread through the country's post-primary institutions was popularly synonymous with natural laxity, which was also characteristic of postwar time. However, we must acknowledge that the issue of examination malpractices is deteriorating more than ten (10) decades after the war. One of the most compelling reasons for the presence or growth of this practice is the materialistic initiation of our society as a whole, with the aim of achieving greater achievement by shortcuts. Students do not want to do any tedious work and they know that something must be completed at any stage.The end justifies the means, thus, is their belief.

Parental and social rewards for paper certification, according to Adekunle (2018), play a major role in examination malpractices. This parental and social power contrasts with the notion of teachers, who aim to deliver students who can fulfill society's demands. According to him, "the desire of parents and prospective employers for educational credentials creates a marked disparity between the values expressed by teachers and the demand of society."Ayua (2014) agreed, suggesting that society puts so much value on certificates and accords greater respect to individuals based on the number of certificates they hold.

He noted that examination malpractices will continue to exist in our culture. And if he purchased the certificate from "Dugbe marked" or the "expo," the guy with a table size certificate is "all" and is assured of upward mobility.

Salami (2014) wrote about the causes of examination malpractices, stating that "what makes people cheat is the inability to focus on their examinations during the research time, which causes them to crash" their courses and, in fear of failure, engage in cheating.

While investigating the triggers of examination malpractices, Egwuatu (2013) discovered that a significant number of teachers taught in most of our institutions of learning today are not skilled. He went on to state that most parents chose courses for their children without considering their skills. Some parents also obtain question papers for their children. This lends credence to the ("Daily Star" April 4, 2003) comments that many parents and guardians not only allow their wards to engage in examination fraud by acts of omission, but often also commit such fraud on their wards' behalf.The (Daily Star April 4, 1993) considered that parents make cash concessions to teachers and school heads to influence their wards' academic grades, while others approach examiners at any stage for a given examination.

According to Nweze (2000) cited in Ivowi et al (2016), the primary sources of cheating in examinations by secondary school students are teachers, parents, and guardians who tolerate laziness and truancy. He went on to state that all lazy students and students who commit truancy want to pass or score high marks in exams.

Similarly, Edo (2017) noted that the key causes of examination malpractices in most of Nigeria's secondary schools are insufficient classrooms, labs, workshops, supplies, instructional materials, and insufficient staff for teaching and supporting services. He went on to say that the inadequacy of such teaching and learning resources contributes to bad teaching on the part of teachers and poor learning on the part of students, causing them to participate in examination deception because all of these classes were aware of their knowledge handicap.

Uko (1996) cited in Edo (2017) proposed that the key reasons of examination malpractices in the majority of our secondary schools are as a result of mass promotion of pupils from primary to junior secondary schools without proper allocation of facilities for the number of such students that their authorities might have in their schools. This, he claims, leads to a high level of indiscipline in both teachers and students, resulting in ineffective teaching and learning and pushing both teachers and students to engage in examination malpractice.

According to Adeyegbe (2014), the key causes of examination malpractices in most of our learning environments are daunting examination questions, which are typically asked by some examiners, candidates' apprehension for progress at all costs, and stringent marking schemes used by some examiners. This, he claims, leads to various forms of examination malpractices because students have no way of escaping such daunting queries, and their only option is to engage in examination deception in order to pass such documents.

On the causes of examination malpractices, Ambali (1995) cited in Adeyegbe (2014), pointed out some of the causes as follows:

1. Ill-preparedness of pupils for examination as a result of poor staffing and inadequate teaching materials in schools.
2. Over zealousness of some heads of schools to get their schools obtain super and ego-boasting examination results;
3. Craze for money by unscrupulous individuals who leak or answer examination questions for students for money;
4. The desire by students to make good results without studying hard for it.

Eke (1998) in his own view outlined four main causes of examination malpractices as:

1. Laziness of student
2. Poor attitude toward reading by students;
3. Corrupt examination officials;

According to Nduanya (2016), there is a heavy focus on paper qualifications, and "both the Nigerian educational system and her labor market are strongly examination and paper certification driven." Some argue that examination malpractice is exacerbated by a candidate's association with invigilators, examiners, or other examination authority.

Scholars such as Madueke (2018), have described a host of reasons that contribute to examination malpractice in the Nigerian education system These influences, which have their roots in nature, the family, and the classroom, may be considered both immediate and distant causes of examination malpractices. Among others, these causes are:

1. Moral decadence
2. Undue emphasis on examination results and certificates
3. Quest for material royalty
4. Poor teaching /learning habits
5. Poor conditions under which examinations are conducted
6. Maladministration of school heads and examiners
7. Poor logistics for examinations
8. The desire to satisfy parents ambition
9. Unpreparedness of students for examinations
10. Students lack of self confidence
11. Peer group influence
12. Benefits derived by vendors of examination papers
13. Injustice in the punishment of culprit/insincerity in tackling the problem
14. Incessant staff strikes that often interrupt the school programmed and
15. Teacher’s threat to fail students.

Another factor influencing examination malpractice is a lack of quality teachers in classrooms. In most of our secondary schools, teaching and learning opportunities such as well-equipped labs, regular classrooms, standard libraries, sports facilities, and standard examination halls are insufficient (Farayola,1991 quoted in Madueke et 2018). The introduction of compulsory basic education in 1976 resulted in an increase in school enrollment, and the national education reform of 1977, which mandated equitable educational opportunity for all children, has contributed to a school population boom.Regrettably, no comparable increase in effort was made to provide infrastructure to deal with the population growth. Observations suggest that having a large number of students in a class would not result in successful teaching and learning. According to Adelusi (2013), many of our post-primary schools are not suitable for serious exams. Malpractice thrives, he claims, in overcrowded, improperly ventilated exam rooms.

Forms of Examination Malpractice

Every examination, students devise new ways to commit examination malpractice. Examination malpractices occur in a variety of ways. They vary from impersonation, query leakage, messing with data, and database manipulation to invigilator fraud. Some types of malpractice are discussed further below.

1. Collusion among candidates themselves and between them and examination officials: When candidates write the same exam copies as one another, this is referred to as collusion. When an examination official leaks the examination documents to the targeted examinees, parents, or overzealous school administrators prior to the examination day, the malpractice is often classified as conspiracy. Examinable collusion leads to widespread cheating.
2. Impersonation: This is a situation in which another candidate or hired mercenary takes the examination in place of the real candidate. Male candidates take the place of female candidates, and twins write examinations for one another.
3. Giraffing:This form of deception is named after an African wild animal with a long neck, thin legs, and a small head (Akaranga & Ongong, 2015). It is a procedure in which an examinee extends his neck as much as possible in order to see and copy what another candidate has written down on a specific query. Giraffing is one of the oldest and most popular types of examination malpractice.
4. Inscription:Students have progressed to the point that they can inscribe materials or details on some portion of their body, such as their wrists, legs, baby pampers, handkerchiefs, rulers, purses, seats, desks, examination hall walls, and so on (Oredein, 2006 cited in Nnam et al 2015). Nursing mothers transform their baby's delicate skin into a white board; demand permission to breastfeed their baby intermittently during examinations, only to use those avenues for note reading or revision. During the examinations for NTI Distance Learning and universities' part-time programs, a new reviewer would be perplexed.
5. Irregular activities inside and outside the examination halls:Students who have decided to cheat engage in unwholesome behavior during examinations. For example, sneaking question papers out of the examination center, submitting and receiving input from other applicants or agents and touts outside the hall, and ripping a portion of a question paper or answer booklet during the examination to commit malpractice.
6. Scientific malpractice/ the use of mobile phones during examinations:Candidates nowadays use illegal scientific calculators, promoters, compact disks, and smart phones to gain an unfair edge. Mobile phones with cameras (imaging functions) are used to take snapshots of an entire textbook in a much smaller format for use during exams. Candidates within the examination hall obtain the answer to multiple-choice questions through handsets from their agents even though they are not in the same geographical area.
7. Bribery:This kind of malpractice could be used to facilitate teacher-student conspiracy to steal. It includes economic views on exam malpractices. A student may pay an examination official money, not necessarily to purchase the question paper, but to be permitted to use illicit materials smuggled into the examination halls or to prolong the examination time. Bribery, also known as sorting in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, is common. Male students give money or other valuables, while female students use money or sex to negotiate for "improvement" of their exam scores.. Bribery is common in both secondary and tertiary levels of education examination.
8. Intimidation / Assault on examination officials:Students and brandishes of hazardous weapons such as daggers, handguns, axes etc. have been recorded in examining rooms so that they may be intimidated by the guards to give them a free day when committing the atroces. This violent act is more likely for students who partake in hidden cultivations. The coercion situation becomes more apparent during external examinations by WASSCE/NECO, popularly known as GCE or in the final semester of graduate exams.
9. Other forms of examination malpractice includes the use of coded sign languages by some candidates, exchanging of answer booklets for note comparison or outright impersonation, mass cheating, leakage of question papers, etc.

From the modes of examination malpractice listed above, it is clear that examination malpractice is not confined to analysis time or location. It really happens anytime before, after or after a examination.Ojerinde (2004) quoted in Anzene (2014) reports that, because of strong laws against such practices, one of the most frequent types of pre-examination errors is to register non-school candidates for school exam by principal.This explains why, during SSCE exams, secondary schools in rural areas with no access roads or challenging terrain that hinders external monitoring or oversight see a surge in candidates. Such "miracle centers" are built for purely commercial reasons, not to educate students. The implementation of the Global Framework for Mobile Communication (GSM) in the country has transformed examination malpractice at all levels of our educational system. A great deal of academic knowledge is now stored in these electronic devices for direct use in examination halls or for later transmission via short message service (sms) to other students around the world.Post-examination malpractices comprise such unwholesome activities occurring after the examinationCandidates monitor their answer booklets to the marking centres, for example. Some candidates use crayle to write their phone numbers during SSCE exams (WASSCE, NECO, & NABTEB), and urge the marker to call them for price negotiation. In response booklets some of the female applicants also append their semi-nudity pictures to mark their answers for the sexual promiscuous man. Such photographs contain contact telephone numbers for contact. Sorting and sexual plea is an important form of post-examinationing malpractice in tertiary institutions.Unscrupulous lecturers manipulate continuous appraisal and even examination scores to give their cohorts an unfair advantage. Intervention by high-ranking school officials to ensure that their wards or relatives graduate or receive a certain grade at all costs is another common form of post-exam malpractice.

EFFECTS OF EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. In a society which is dominated by examination malpractice, its influence is seen in the type of human resources produced by the education system. In the beneficiaries of examinations of violence, all essential input mechanisms get defaced and the educational system corrupted. The school system tries once again to inculcate a high degree of discipline, commitment, and spiritual love for others (The CWO Voice, 2016).
2. Examination malpractice results in lifelong reputation damage. A country's foreign reputation suffers as it becomes known for examination malpractice. The inference is that documents or certificates issued by such a government would be viewed with mistrust, as is currently the case in Nigeria. In terms of international educational cooperation, those country's educational institutions are all but extinct (Jimoh, B. O. 2014).
3. examination malpractice has serious repercussions for people and academic organizations, communities and the whole nation. Dismissal, firing, loss of job and lack of self-confidence have all affected the employee, families and the country and brought much shame and misery. The accused, unable to justify certificates, could not speak of the service of the prisoners who were not captured and penalized.
4. Bank failures, building collapses, industrial terrorism, arson, kidnapping/hostage taking for ransom, methamphetamine theft, fake drug processing and sales are all actual consequences of moral decadence caused by examination malpractice. The consequences of examination fraud can be seen in gas stations, mosques, houses, hospitals, stores, and other public places.
5. It is not possible to combat corruption if examination malpractice in our education system remains rampant. As prospective leaders of a school system marked by academic deception and dishonesty, this unethical conduct will likely show itself in whatever company they can find. Many that cheat for an exam would cheat to be hired, have a girlfriend or even be elected through voting abuse or other major malpractices.

Other consequences of examination malpractice include students being discouraged from working hard, low morale and poor job performance, bribery, corruption, and diploma racketeering. Examination malpractice, with its drawbacks, has a negative impact on all aspects of society. Individuals, legislatures, and other partners in the education sector must work together to eliminate this malpractice before the nation's societal, fiscal, and technical potentials can be realized.

WAYS OF CURBING EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE IN NIGERIA

No one can claim to have all the solutions to the eradication of examination malpractice in Nigeria, but the writer believes strongly that the following suggestions will curtail malpractice to the barest minimum.

1. Societal re-engineering and re-orientation to revamp moral values:Good moral values should be well instilled in our teenagers, and parents are advised to avoid helping their children cheat. Again, only fair people must participate in the administration of examinations. Petters & Okon (2014) also proposes effective school counseling to help children develop effective learning practices.

2. Retraining and reassessment of teachers:Teachers must be prepared for a technologically influenced future (Uzoigwe, n.d). Teachers cannot offer opportunities and exercises to direct students' development toward comprehension of concepts if they do not grasp what these ideas are; similarly, teachers cannot provide experiences that challenge students if they have the same misconception. B. O. Jimoh (2014). Since some of our teachers at different levels of education are victims or products of malpractice, a mandatory nationwide retraining of teachers is critical to re-equip them to impart information. Those that are considered to be un-trainable should be reassigned administrative duties.

3. Appropriate recognition and remuneration of teachers / examination officials: In order to dissuade the teachers of the examination officers from financial and material incentives from pupils, parents and those who wish to undergo the examination process, an enhanced compensation and special care plan should be charged. The examination officers include instructors who supervise the exams, administrators who supervise the conduct of examinations at schools, exam officers who control the conduct of exams, and law enforcement officers responsible for security at exam centres.

4. Promulgation and enforcement of examination malpractice (prohibition) laws: The Examination Malpractice Act 33 of 1999 should be revised to reintroduce portions of Decree 20 of 1984 that advocated for twenty one (21) years imprisonment without the possibility of a fine for convicted perpetrators of examination malpractice. If completely enforced, this would function as a deterrence to students, invigilators, security guards, and other partners in the malpractice sector.

5. Employment of qualified teachers at all levels of education:No overemphasis can be put on the need for trained staff. "Science is science" is the time for the Agricultural Science Teacher in Chemistry, Physics and Integrated Science. Trained teachers can only be deployed in their area of expertise to address topics. Notice that a medical engineering doctor is a quack..

6. School libraries and laboratories should be adequately equipped:New and high-quality textbooks, up-to-date laboratory facilities, and workshop facilities are all useful materials for successful teaching and learning. These essential items should be given, and libraries and labs should be made conducive to learning practices. In reality, the whole school setting should be conducive to learning and human habitation.

7. Proper funding of education sector:In compliance with the UNESCO proposal of 26% of the annual national discretionary allocation for education, the federal and state annual budgets should be adopted. It should be recognized by the Nigerian government that education is the foundation of all culture and the growth pillar of today's diverse and dynamic environment. We have a dilapidate classroom without desks, and classrooms without tables in our classes, in particular primary and secondary.

8. Less emphasis on paper qualifications /certificates:Nigeria's school system is mostly based on diploma programs. The excessive emphasis put on paper qualifications or certificates is a significant contributing factor for examination malpractices, which is why candidates would go to whatever length to ensure that they received everything they wanted to make a living, whether in a just or unjust manner (Onuka & Durowoju, 2016).

9. The use of effective continuous assessment techniques:Akanni & Odofin (2015) describes a continuous assessment (C. A.) as a continuous updating of teachers' performance judgment on relevant parameters that enables a cumulative assessment of teacher performance at any moment. Continuous evaluation obliges students, by completing notes, do assignments and tasks, to use their time to study adequately. It provides teachers with an early chance to look at the methodology of teaching and the assimilation of the topics learned by the students. Again, C.A. decreases one-shot exams' anxiety.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework guiding the the study will be social learning theory.

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura 1962)

Social Learning Theory which was developed by Albert Bandura postulates that behaviour is a learning process. The theory posits that if humans were motivated to learn a particular behaviour, that particular behaviour would be learned through clear observations. By imitating these observed actions, the individual observer would solidify that learned action and be rewarded with positive reinforcement (Miller & Dollard, 1941). The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Albert Bandura from 1962 to the present. This theory posits that people learn from one another through observation, imitation and modelling. According to Bandura (1977), people learn through observing others’ behaviour and attitudes and the outcomes form an idea of how new behaviours are performed and on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences. It is a theory of learning and social behaviour which proposes that new behaviours can be acquired by observing and imitating others. Social learning theory also known as social cognitive theory is the idea that people learn by watching what others do and human thought processes are central to understanding personality. In applying the social learning perspective to dressing patterns, indecent dressing is learned through role models, celebrities’ dressing styles, and peer influence (Mihalic & Elliot cited in Igwe, 2013).

Observing the behaviour of others influences one’s behaviour. Therefore through exposure to social model, socialmedia audience tendto imitate theirpatterns of doing things.The role models could be celebrities on various social media platforms that are likely to influence consumer consumption,attitude and behaviour pattern. Social learning theory recognizes that much of human behaviours are learned through watching other people. Social media providesuch model throughvarious posts beingdisplayed on the platforms and this does not apply to only students modelling habit but also to adults. They are also affected if exposed to the media. Such exposure leads to an adjustment in knowledge,attitude and behaviour.If students watchand see thefashion on social media platforms, they will ultimately gain the knowledge on new trends about dress-patterns that are contemporary andpopular. There is likelihood that theymay adjust their attitudes towards such fashion and probably adjust their way of dressing. Social learningtheory acknowledges thathuman beings arecapable of thinkingthey can benefit fromobservation and fromexperiencing others. Youthsare good atimitating their idols no matter who the model is. This is also true for their way of dressing.

In relating social learning theory to indecent dressing among female undergraduates, one can rightly say that these undergraduate student learn the dress pattern from peers and social media celebrities by observing, imitating and modelling. They learn these Western values of dressing from the internet, television, magazine and newspaper.

The behavioural psychologist, believe that behaviours whether desirable or undesirable like cheating during examination are mostly learned. Behaviours that bring satisfaction tend to be repeated whereas those that do not bring satisfaction tend to be discontinued (Nenty 2001 cited in Uko, I. T. (2014). Therefore when some students work hard and fail in examination it may be due to unfavorable environment conditions, they may not want to go through that process again because it is not rewarding. Having seen how their mates performed better through cheating during examinations, they also learn the undesirable behavior and thus get involved in examination malpractices.

Psychologically, it is believed that everybody has a strong need to succeed and will succeed if they have positive concept and are exposed to the right environmental condition such as curriculum, facilities and methods necessary for a maximum development of that potential. However, if such unique conditions are lacking for an individual, then failure sets in even if such individuals have the right self-concept. In order to be branded a success, people resort to cheating (Lefrancois, 1982cited in Uko, I. T. (2014).

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

It is pertinent to point out that not much work or studies have been carried out on stakeholders’ involvement in examination malpractice. However, one may be constrained to review work on the examination malpractices generally. Nweze, G. C (2010) undertook research study on examination malpractice in internal examination in Enugu and Udi Local Government Area of Enugu State. The work was designed to identify the forms and sources of examination malpractices in secondary schools. Identified in the study are the factors that influence students’ involvement in these examination malpractice, the types of students that are involved and the possible remedies for curbing examination malpractices. Their population was made of the sixteen secondary schools in the two Local Government Areas. A total of sixteen principals, one hundred and sixty teachers and three hundred and eighty four students were used in the study. Simple random sampling was used in the selection process.Questionnaire and documentary evidence were instruments for data collection. In the analysis of data, frequency, percentage mean, z-statistics and t-score were used. From the result of the findings, the study revealed the following:

1. some forms of cheating identified include, having fore knowledge of question paper, copying answers on laps, desks, chairs, arms and dresses, copying from notes, textbooks and other relevant materials, discussing during examination, preparing answers outside examination had and passing them at the end of the examinations.
2. Getting help from irresponsible invigilators, copying from other students answer sheets, impersonation and bribing teachers for marks among others.

Ugwoke (2012) in his work delved into teachers’ opinion on the strategies for reducing examination malpractice in post primary schools in Nsukka L. G. A, of Enugu State. The population was drawn from the eight secondary schools sampled and consisted of eight principals and ninety-six teachers. Proportionate stratified random sampling techniques were used to select the sample from urban and rural schools instrument for data collection was the questionnaire designed to elicit responses from teachers. In analysis of the responses mean score were used. From the results the following findings emerged:-

1. Logistic remedies-Adequate punishment should be administered to offenders.
2. Psychological remedies-improvement should be made in the quality of teaching
3. Administrative remedies-large examination centers should be set so as to start the examination the same time. The researchers proffer a number of recommendations towards reducing examination malpractices in schools.

In a similar view, Obimba (2002) undertook a study of examination malpractice among secondary schools students: a case study for counseling. The study sought to investigate causes of examination malpractice, the actors in examination malpractice. The population was made up of two secondary schools in Owerri West Local Government Area of Imo State-male and female respectively. A total of two hundred and forty students were drawn from S.S 3 classes of the two schools in the Zone. The sampling technique used was simple random sample (balloting) in the selection process. The instrument for data collection was the questionnaire. Responses were analysed using t-examination statistics with the significant level set at 0.05 for directional examination. Her study revealed that:

1. Poor and insufficient teaching of students in secondary schools and students themselves not studying hard enough causes examination malpractice among students.
2. Some workers in WAEC, NABTEB and JAMB, supervisors and invigilators in public examinations, some principals and their teachers, some parents and mercenaries aid and abet examination malpractices.
3. Examination were taken in prearranged special centers, people were hired to take examination for some candidates while some candidates secretly carried solved examination questions or related materials to the examination malpractice.

The researcher recommended a number of solutions towards eradication of the obnoxious practice.

Similarly, Stan (2002) carried out a study on combating the menace of examination malpractices in Nigeria. Used a sample of population of students of secondary schools and post secondary institutions, teachers, parents and civil servants of all the states of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Stratified random sampling procedure was employed in the study. A total of 606 subjects from 10 states were involved in the study. The finding of the study shows that:-

1). Examination malpractice is defined as all unethical practices carried out to influence or enhance the performance of candidate in an examination, giving the candidate an undue advantage over the other Examinees.

2) The major forms of examination malpractice commonly used are bringing prepared answers to the examinations venue.

3). Examination malpractice is mostly caused by fear of failure on the part of the students.

4) The categories of people usually involved in the examination malpractice are the students and examination Officials

5) The method commonly used in examination malpractice is bringing live question papers by the students.

6) The studies show the effects of examination malpractices on students, are less confident to face difficult tasks.

7) The studies showed the effects of examination malpractice on the educational system, to be contributing to the falling standard of education.

8) The investigation on the effects of examination malpractices on the entire society to be encouraging corruption practices and other vices in our dear society.

9) The studies showed on the suggested solutions to the problem of examination malpractices that student should be encouraged or motivated effectively on their own, under the guidance of their teachers.