FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF SCIENCE STUDENTS IN SCHOOLS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in two sub-headings:

 Conceptual Framework

 Theoretical Framework

 Chapter Summary

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Science

The word science comes from Latin word Scientia, which means knowledge; It is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in a form of testable explanations and predictions. In modern usage science often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge itself. Science also refers to a body of knowledge itself, of the type that can be rationally explained and reliably applied. A practitioner of science is known as a scientist, (Butts, D.P 1977).

Learning environment

The learning environment includes all the facilities, infrastructure available at the place where the school is located and all that can be found within the school surroundings. For the case of this study, the learning environment refers to the physical location, teaching delivery as well as approaches to learning whereas the term infrastructure is used to refer to things such as classrooms, furniture, laboratory and the library, (Chonjo et al, 1996).

Performance

Performance is the accomplishment of a given task measured against preset standards of accuracy, completeness, cost and speed. Education performance is deemed to be the fulfillment of an objective in a manner that ensures that the performer has attained the set goals in the given level of education. Performance in education is always accompanied by an academic certificate to show that the performer has successfully completed the grade or course and has attained the stated grades, (Butts, 1977).

Choice

According to Morgan (1995) choice is the ability to choose between two or more alternatives. In the same vein, Roe (1998) see choice as the right to choose or the chance to choose between several things.

Reviewing further, Wert (1998) observed that choice and responsibility are two sides of the same coin; Okeke (1993) maintained that the power of free will is what choice represents. Furthermore, Landmark Education stated that where a choice is seen as a free selection, but not based upon reason or consideration, choice is directly in place. However, the act of making choice by senior secondary school students is always a herculean task for students. This is so because the choices they make in their academics go a long way to reflect on their lives. Right choice of subject is greatly responsible for their future career fulfillment. Students should therefore make subject choice based upon their aptitude, overwhelming interest and not on emotions persuasion from their parents and peers. To this effect, all head teachers, parents etc. must be on deck in assisting students to help students in making right decisions when selecting subjects that will be appropriate and suitable for achieving future career dreams. To this end, Barnel (1995) suggests that efforts should be made by parents, teachers and counsellors in assisting students to make right choices of their school subjects.

Factors Influencing Students’ Choice of Science Subjects

Students look forward to the opportunity to choose their academic plans and classes (Smith, Feldwisch and bell, (2006). According to the enhanced cognitive engagement theory, allowing students to choose which classes they enroll in increases motivation and independence which in turn increases a student's cognitive processing and performance (Flowerday and Schraw, (2003). However, the task of subjects is very complex with multiple considerations, most of which overlap with one another. Students are influenced by the different academic portions of the class such as the value of the content, the structure, and the workload. They also have to decide what is important to them with regards to their interests, personal academic goals, and their schedule. But students do not make these decisions alone because they do occasionally seek advice from their family, faculty, and/or friends. Not all of the different considerations of a course are as influential as others, but it is important to know what students want from their classes, what they expect of themselves, and who they will listen to. Educators and schools need to know this information; especially those of elective courses so they can meet the needs of students and have them continue to enroll in their class.

More importantly though, if teachers can adapt their classes to better meet the needs of students the students will be more engaged which will increase their comprehension and excitement for the curriculum, which should be any teacher's ultimate goal (Flowerday &Schraw, (2003):. 214). From the Kenya National Examinations Council KCSE Report (2008), Journal of Research in Education and Society; Volume 4, April 2012, 15 percentage candidatures for physics for the years 2009, 2010, and 2011 were 30.41%, 26.69% and 26.78% respectively. The other science subjects had figure above 90%.In the same year physics was better performed than biology and chemistry. This showed that although students have the ability to score high grades in physics, other factors were hindering them. It may be that the attitude that students develop towards a subject is dependent on their experiences in school. Furthermore, Waititu (2004) indicates that although the link between performance and attitude is not very strong, what is very clear is the strong relationship between attitude and the choice of a subject of study. A key property of physics is that there are many mathematical concepts and processes. The mathematical calculations in physics may make the subject a preserve of very few learners. The high number of these concepts and processes do provide a background or have a high utilitarian value in understanding scientific programs especially in physics. In this case, calculations are very important in expressing physics content (Bassey, (2003). In contrast, Murithi (1996) states that physics is taught to selected students who have knowledge of its mathematical concepts and symbols. This reveals that while some scholars value the contribution that mathematics has on the science content, others view the interdependence as an obstacle to excellence in these science subjects. Contributing on the issue, Knecht (1965) says that sciences and mathematics are closely linked that their teachings overlap. The requirement of mathematical knowledge thus could be blocking some students from venturing into chemistry and Physics. Wadsworth (1998) puts it that underachievers who fail in mathematics remain passive and are often blocked out of sciences such as physics and chemistry since the mathematical principals and applications lower their morale in pursuing their agenda. Statistics from the Imenti South District results reports revealed that in the years 2006, 2007 and 2008, the highest candidature registered for physics in the district was 23.31% in 2007. This represents low candidature registration for the subject and predicts negative attitude towards physics. Kungania (2006) conducted an investigation on the factors influencing attitude of diploma teacher trainees towards science and mathematics in Kenya. The research findings revealed that students have a positive attitude towards physics, perceive the physics' teachers as competent and they perceive the physics laboratories as well equipped. Further, Waititu (2004) explored students' perception of difficulty in topic areas of the Kenya secondary school science syllabus. The research findings revealed that about half of the students found biology very interesting or interesting, and about a quarter found it boring or very boring. In contrast, only about a quarter of the students thought that physics was very interesting or interesting and about half thought it boring or very boring. There was no significant difference in the responses of the males and females to the closed-form item about biology, whereas statistically significantly fewer females than males thought that physics was interesting. Thus, the results to this section of the questionnaire support the contention that students find physics less interesting than a comparator science subject, biology, and that fewer girls than boys find physics interesting.Therefore from the perspective of the various thinkers as mentioned above its undisputable that series of factors interplay in the students mind for the right choice of the science lessons, a myriad of factors are deemed to influence students choice of the subjects of their interest.

Perception Of the Value of the Subject

Students’ attitudes towards science subjects affect their choice of the subjects. Generally, a negative attitude towards a given subject leads to lack of interest and when subjects are to be selected, as in senior secondary schools, it leads to avoiding the subject or course. Furthermore, a positive attitude towards science according to Simpson and Oliver (1990) leads to a positive commitment to science that influences lifelong interest and learning of science. This is the reason why major science education reform efforts in Africa have emphasized the improvement of students’ attitudes towards science subjects. The quality of a subject can have a tremendous effect on whether a student chooses to enroll in a class because it covers a wide variety of factors. Quality of a subject means that the laboratories for this subject are well equipped and the subject is taught by qualified teachers. A subject can be interesting to a student but the class needs to be well executed for the content to actually be understood and beneficial. Research has found that the majority of students will choose classes based on its high quality of learning rather than the deciding based on the instructor and/or the ease of the class (Babad Tayeb,( 2003) and Wilhelm, (2004). In fact, according to Wilhelm (2004), students are four times more likely to choose a class where they have the opportunity to learn a "great deal" of knowledge even if the class requires a lot of readings and assignments. Students want to know how they will be assessed throughout a class and if aspects like effort and improvement will play a role in that assessment (Ferrer-Caja Weiss, (2002). Therefore, classes with set expectations and the ability to actually meet those expectations are very likely to positively influence a student's choice in enrolling in a course (Curran Rosen, 2006). The knowledge a student gains in a class can be beneficial and desired by a student because they simply want to gain knowledge; however, students may also prefer quality of education because of the relevancy and perceived value it can have on their life once they graduate, including their search for employment. According to Nagy, Trautwein, Baumert, Koller, and Garrett (2006), high school students are likely to enroll in subjects that will pertain to what they want to study in college. Students in secondary schools are then greatly influenced by the potential for career opportunities and advancement; therefore, the more valuable a subject is to a future career, the greater the likelihood a student will enroll in it (Ackerman Gross, 2006). Students' enrollment of subjects based on its relevancy to their future career aspirations becomes even more predominate as the students get closer to graduation and they begin to search for jobs (Wilhelm, (2004). Research findings have shown that the pattern of students’ interaction inside and outside the classroom has significant effects on their interest and achievement in science (Fraser et al. 1999). In terms of the classroom, the individual child is motivated not only by his basic needs and drives, but also by the stimulation provided by his peer group. Every student has their own perception of the values attached to the specific subjects that they would wish to undertake, a series of factors play an important role on the value associated with the subject lesson these can include the suitability in the job market, career choice etc.

The Influence of The Subject Teacher on Students’ Choices of Science Subjects

Although research has indicated that students have a larger preference for the knowledge that they can receive from a class rather than the instructor, it is the instructor who has a significant impact on how useful the subject can be (Wilhelm, 2004). Also, the preference of an instructor's lecturing style is very close to being as important as the quality of the value of the content (Babad and Taybe, 2003). A student's attitude about an instructor has a large impact on their attitude toward a class (Curran and Rosen, 2006). Students prefer subjects that are taught by teachers who are enthusiastic, well spoken, knowledgeable, caring, and helpful as opposed to instructors who are dry, inflexible, and unclear (Curran and Rosen, 2003). If instructors are inflexible and unclear, they are much more likely to be difficult to learn from, which is a major concern for students (Smith et al., 2006). If students are concerned about a teacher they are less likely to enrol in that class, and vice versa, according to the research done by Wilhelm (2004: 23). Subject teachers play a crucial role in taming students choices over the science subject to go for some teachers are perceived by the students to be good teachers they teacher and this will influence students into his class while students perceive other teachers not to be the right teachers for such subjects this will reduce the rate of the subject by the students.

The influence of Gender-difference on Students’ Choices of Science Subjects in Secondary Schools

The gender of a student can often affect their enrollment in a class. Men and women can have different values, and there are also certain standards or expectations that vary between genders.

Gender differences are especially apparent in high school aged students. Females are less likely to enroll in science and math classes compared to men, but more likely to enroll in English classes (Tenenbaum, 2008). One reason for this could be the different perceptions men and women have in regards to their ability and competency in those certain classes because students are more likely to enroll in classes where they think they can excel (Nagy et al., 2006). According to Riegle-Crumb et al (2006), females often score better in science despite the fact that men often think they are better in that subject. This could be explained because females often expect more from their education than men do and therefore put forth more effort and have high levels of school engagement (Grebennikon Skaines, 2009). But despite the scores indicating that girls are capable, the gender gap still exists in classes like science and math. A main reason for this could be that, according to Tenenbaum,( 2008), parents use double the amount of discouraging comments towards daughters than they do sons when it comes to the subjects their children take, which only enforces the stereotypes that already exist about gender differences leading females to feel less secure in certain subjects and opting to take other classes. However, as students go from high school to college, they often become more alike in the choices they make in regards to what they study (Malgwi et al., 2005). Interest in the subject is still one of the main factors of enrollment regardless of gender (Malgiw et al, 2005). However, females find more importance in a subject that has clear assessment requirements, provides constructive feedback, and has a fair amount of work throughout the study period (Grebennikon and Skaines, (2009).

But despite some differences, research has indicated that the gender gap is closing between college males and females' perception of their abilities. Zhao, Carini, and Kuh (2005) have found that women in science, math, engineering and technology classes (SMET) are becoming either equal to or more satisfied with their college experience than males which leads to their greater academic success and the continuous closing of the gender gap in certain course enrollment. A national indicator in Kenya of implicit gender-science stereotyping was related to a nation’s sex differences in science achievement and by extension, to other markers of diverse scientific leadership (Nosek, et al, 2006). Research thus attributes low enrolment of girls in science to lower parental expectations and encouragement. Girls are socialized into characteristics of dependence, nurturance and passivity. They therefore develop a set of attitudes and beliefs that do not promote high levels of achievement and participation in science. Studies have found that females have more negative attitude towards math and science (Wasanga, 1997). According to Wasanga (1997), the majority of girls found science subjects difficult and they perceived science subjects to be more useful to boys. .Aghenta, (1989) found that perceived difficulties of science occupations was a significant factor preventing girls from entering Science, Technology and Mathematics (STM) fields. The attitude that one holds towards science appears to be a powerful predictor of achievement in the respective field. A poor attitude to STM was a barrier to access of STM related fields but conversely, a good or positive attitude was one of the several factors that facilitated performance in STM. Achievement differences are also influenced by single sex versus mixed sex schools. According to Whitelaw et al. (2000), sex is probably the most important variable related to pupils’ attitudes to science. Many studies for instance, Francis and Greer (1999), Jones et al. (2000), reported that males have more positive attitudes toward science than females. Also, Osborne et al. (2003) stressed that there is still a bias against physical sciences held by girls, suggesting that at an individual level the overwhelming majority of girls still choose not to do physical science as soon as they can. In the same vein, Aigbomian (2002) observed that boys perform better than girls in science, technical and mathematical subjects. It is generally believed that socio-cultural and religious practices are at the root of this imbalance. Gender difference differentiates the girls’ subject choice from boys. Girls tend to generally like other subjects and hate other science subjects; there is also a variation between science subjects for boys compared to the subject choice for the ladies.

Role of Parents and Teachers in Students’ Choices of Science Subjects in Secondary Schools

Career advice by parents and teachers can influence students’ choice of science subjects especially in Africa. In a related investigation Okeke (2000) revealed that parents have significant effect on students’ choice of career and subjects. If we want to encourage more young students into science, then students need rich opportunities to find out about the many ways sciences can be used in interesting careers, most of the students have not been helped by their parents when making their study choices. Furthermore, the school has a great role to play in influencing students’ choice of science subjects particularly in Africa. The school should support subjects and careers decision making. This will go a long way to encourage students’ choice of science subjects. In addition, students need information about the structure and content of the science subjects they want to study. This will help to influence their choice of the subject.

According to (Malgwi et al., (2005)), Parents are more likely to influence students' decisions than guidance counselors or teachers. Students are likely to enroll in more classes if they talk with their parents first, which implies that parents do have an effect on their child's decisions (Tenenbaum, 2008). Parents look forward to their children having new teachers and classes with the end result of them getting good grades (Smith et al., 2006). Therefore, parents will encourage their students to take a variety of classes where they think they can excel. Tenenbaum (2008) further argued that fathers are more likely to discourage their children from taking certain difficult classes, especially with daughters. Teachers in the schools are supposed to provide assistance and guidance to their students on subject, but research indicates that teachers are not as influential as family or peers in a student's choice of courses (Malgwi et al., 2005). Consequently, teachers do have more influence over a student's decision than guidance counselors (Malgwi et al, 2005). Either way, teachers and guidance counselors are not likely to discourage students from enrolling in classes, but to encourage the enrollment in certain classes (Anderson et al., 2008).

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Theory of Work Adjustment (René Dawis, George England and Lloyd Lofquist 1962)

The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) is a class of theory in career development that is anchored on the individual difference tradition of vocational behaviour called person-environment correspondence theory, viewing career choice and development as continual processes of adjustment and accommodation in which: (a) the person (P) looks for work organizations and environments (E) that would match his/her requirements in terms of needs, and (b) E in turn looks for individuals who have the capabilities to meeting the requirements of the organization. The term satisfaction is used to indicate the degree that P is satisfied with E, and satisfactoriness is used to denote the degree that E is satisfied with P. To P, the most central requirements to meet from E are his/her needs (or reinforcers), which could be further dissected into categories of psychological and physical needs that are termed values. To E, however, the most central requirements are abilities, which are operationalised as dimensions of skills that P possesses that are considered necessary in a given E. Overall, the degree of P’s satisfaction and E’s satisfactoriness would jointly predict P’s tenure in that work environment (Dawis, 2005).

Recent formulations of TWA speculated on the effects of diverse adjustment styles that could be used to explain how P and E continuously achieve and maintain their correspondence (Dawis, 2005). Four adjustment style variables are identified, which are flexibility, activeness, reativeness, and perseverance. Flexibility refers to P’s level of tolerance to P-E dis-correspondence and whether he/she has a tendency to become easily dissatisfied with E. Activeness refers to whether P has a tendency to actively change or act on E to reduce dis-correspondence and dis-satisfaction. Reactiveness, conversely, refers to whether P would resort to self-adjustment in order to deal with dis-correspondence without actively changing or acting on E. Perseverance refers to P’s degree of resolve and persistence to adjust and accommodate before choosing to exit E. Similar adjustment styles also influence E’s approach to deal with dis-correspondence and dis-satisfactoriness (Griffin and Hesketh, 2003).

Career choice and development is thus conceptualized as a continual process or cycles of work adjustment initiated by dis-satisfaction and dis-satisfactoriness. A major strength of TWA is that a battery of measures has been developed to measure the various variables associated with the theory, including measures on satisfaction, needs and values, skills and abilities, satisfactoriness, and indexes of correspondence (Dawis, 2005). A large number of research studies have been conducted in the last decades to examine the propositions derived from TWA, especially on the linkage between needs/abilities and satisfaction/satisfactoriness, and between work adjustment and tenure (Dawis, 2005).

An important direction for future research on TWA is the role of the adjustment styles in moderating work adjustment (Dawis, 2005). This was done in a study by Griffin and Hesketh (2003) with research participants from two organizations in Australia. Exploratory factor analysis was performed on two sets of items related to (a) supervisor’s ratings of employee’s adaptive performance, and (b) employee’s ratings of work requirements biodata and self-efficacy for behaving adaptively. The results yielded a clear proactive factor and a reactive factor, according to TWA propositions, but a tolerant factor did not clearly emerge from the data. It was also found that adaptive performance was related to self-efficacy for adaptive behaviour. In one of the organizations, work requirements biodata and adaptability-related personality were predictive of adaptive performance, consistent with the prediction from TWA (Griffin and Hesketh, 2003). Taken as a whole, TWA seeks to explain career development and satisfaction in terms of person-environment correspondence, and it offers career guidance professionals a template to locate entry points to assist individuals with career choice and adjustment concerns.

2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several authors and scholars on the concept of science, learning environment, performance and career. The works of scholars who conducted empirical studies have been reviewed also. In this chapter, the researcher has been able to review some literature discussing the factors which influences students choice of science subject. This chapter is thus fulfilled the conceptual, theoretical and empirical requirements.