FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT AMONG PARENTS
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
- Conceptual Framework and
- Theoretical Framework
- Empirical Review
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
CONCEPT OF CHILD ABUSE
Child abuse can be defined as causing or permitting any harmful or offensive contact on a Childs body; and any communication or transaction of any kind, which humiliates, shames, or frightens the child. Some child development experts go a bit further, and define child abuse as any act or omission, .which fails to nurture or in the upbringing of the children The child abuse prevention and treatment act defines .child abuse and neglect as: "at minimum, any recent act or fare to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death serious physical ' emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk or serious harm" In addition the oxford-advanced learner's dictionary of contemporary English defines it as the crime of harming a child in a physical, sexual or emotional away. It should be noted that any child of any sex, race, religion and socioeconomic background could fall victim to child abuse and neglect.
Child Abuse in the Nigeria Context
Although child abuse occurs in Nigeria, it has received little attention. This is probably due to the emphasis placed on the more prevalent childhood problems of malnutrition and infection. Another possible reason is the general assumption that in every African society the extended family system always provides love, care and protection to all children. Yet there are traditional child rearing practices which adversely affect some children, such as purposeful neglect or abandonment of severely handicapped children, and twins or triplets in some rural areas. With the alteration of society by rapid socioeconomic and political changes, various forms of child abuse have been identified, particularly in the urban areas. These may be considered the outcome of abnormal interactions of the child, parents/ guardians and society. They include abandonment of normal infants by unmarried or very poor mothers in cities, increased child labour and exploitation of children from rural areas in urban elite families, and abuse of children in urban nuclear families by child minders. Preventive measures include provision of infrastructural facilities and employment opportunities in the rural areas in order to prevent drift of young population to the cities. This would sustain the supportive role of the extended family system which is rapidly being eroded. There is need for more effective legal protection for the handicapped child and greater awareness of the existence of child abuse in the community by health and social workers.
Every child despite his individual differences and uniqueness is to be considered of equal worth. He should therefore be entitled to equal social, economic, civil and political rights, so that he may fully realise his inherent potential and share equally in life (Gill, 1979).
Child abuse is a significant contemporary community problem. Although children have been maltreated throughout history, our community has been silent in defence of abused children. Child abuse is not a phenomenon of the 20th Century nor is it unique to our society and culture alone. It has occurred throughout the recorded history of man. The future of any nation depends on its children and their capabilities. For this reason, they must be given a full chance.
The concept of child abuse has no specific definition as it varies from individuals, ethnic, religious and professional bodies. The practice of child abuse has manifested in all socio-economic classes, religion, ethnic and cultural groups. Child abuse is not a new social problem in history. There is a considerable evidence to show that prior to the European industrial revolution and certainly during the period, there had been systematic abuse of children for both economic an ideological reasons. Since then attempts have been made to seek an explanation to the problem and important ways of systematically controlling and preventing it as well as treating the victimized child. Despite the attempt and the considerable attention, the problem still remains in recent years, a largely neglected policy area, one in which it has not been possible to obtain any widespread understanding or agreement as to the steps that can be taken to combat It (Carballo, 1995). According to Carballo (1995), child abuse is generally defined as ‘any act of commission or in the case of neglect, omission that endangers or impairs a child’s physical, developmental and emotional wellbeing’. Child abuse encompasses physical, psychological and sexual abuse and neglect.
Portwood (1998) stated that children who are physically abused are more likely to face variety of emotional problems and children who are sexually abused exposed their genitals to their parents, friends and strangers who engage in sexual acts with them or for pornographic purposes. Kimberly (2001) and Kempe (1962) reported that a child is vulnerable to extreme maltreatment such as child scolding, prostitution and labour. Female children who are between the ages of seven and thirteen years experience sexual abuse than male children. Some of these children live with their parents, step parents, single mothers with cohabiting male, abusive parents and substance abusive family member, who, out of aggression, abuse their own children (Villigrosia, 2002). Heyman and Slep (2002) observed that child abusers are likely to have experienced abuse themselves. Abusive behaviour is transmitted across generation with studies showing that some 30% of abused children became abusive parents. Children who experience abuse and violence may adopt the behaviour as a model for their own parenting, and parents who cannot differentiate between discipline and abuse also abuse their own children (Gelles, 2001) . The potential for maltreatment exists in all social strata and every family at some points in a child’s development. There is no single explanation for child abuse. Child abuse results from a complex combination of personal, social and cultural factors. It can be caused by inter-generational transmission of violence, social isolation, low community involvement and types of families (Finkhelor, 2001).
Causes of Child Abuse
Several reasons have been put forward as predisposing factors to child abuse. These include poverty, high cost of living, lack of sponsorship, poor school performance, single parenthood, large family size, peer group pressure, poor home conditions, lack of parental care, unemployment, parent pressure and poor scholastic achievement (Donli, 1990, Fawole, 2003, Godfrey 1996). Under development in Nigeria, the view of Durough (1986), has made the provision of social welfare services like education, healthcare, thereby prompting parents to resort to child labour and exploitation. Amidst such situation mentioned above, some Nigerian parents and guardians exposed their children to street hawking and other child labour in order to support the family income. Federal Government of Nigeria has declared education as one of the rights of the child through the Universal Basic Education Programme (1999). Ogbe (2007) claimed that yet the Nigerian children continue to suffer abuse in one form or the other. He continued by stating that the major cause of child abuse is economical which is associated with poverty. Ebigbo (1995) stated that the hawking of wears and food on the roads, streets, motor parks, plank shades, mechanic shops, is an economic means of making ends meet either sponsored by parents, guardians, caregivers or the child personal interest. Ogbe (2007) quoting Fawole (2003) cited cultural beliefs in treating the child as another cause of child abuse as children are seen as mere properties of their parents. Problems have been known to be associated with single parenthood. Hamburg (1993) pointed to the fact in addition to having fewer financial resources; single parent may be less able to supervise their children. This is evidence that a child living in a single parent family and having little parental supervision will be susceptible to delinquent behaviour and substance abuse. The implications of single parenthood to child rearing can be viewed in relation to the Brazilian proverb quoted by Stolcke, (1992) “when the father leaves the home, the household trembles, when the mother leaves it, the house crumbles”. Ekpu (2004) cited Hamburg (1993) that marital separation commonly involves major emotional distress for child relationship. Usalo (2002) reporting Oloko (1986) that the worst child abuse is among the less social and poorest people and they are the most vulnerable groups in the society. Children from such groups will continue to be sent to work as long as long as their families depend on their income or proceed in order to survive. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1990) reported that “state funding for education declines and a segment of the population can no longer afford to send their children to school”. Pemede (2004) stated that manifestation of child abuse is apparently a clear picture of government attitude towards education. This condition has forced many children out of school thereby engaging to hard labour. Bidemi and Adefuye (2007) stated that formal education has become a slogan not a reality that is education in Nigeria has become a privilege not a right considering the state or standard of education in the country. In a situation where government plays passive role in enhancing quality education, abolition of free education as well as poor funding will lead to child abuse (Pemede, 2004). The Federal Ministry of Health (1990) cited that in the northern part of Nigeria, street trading serves as marriage preparation for girls, since they are expected to meet their suitors during trading and helps their mothers accumulate a dowry without which marriage loses esteem. The focus of this study therefore is to examine the socio-economic factors of two principal actors (father and mother) as correlate of child abuse in two Ika local government areas of Delta State, Nigeria.
Obviously, these values are rooted in the humanistic philosophy of any nation's declaration of independence. In accordance with these value premises therefore “any act of commission or omission by individuals, institutions or the society as a whole, and any conditions which deprive children of equal rights and liberties and interfere.
Types of Child Abuse
Emotional Abuse: it is also seen as verbal a use mental abuse, and psychosocial maltreatment. It includes acts or the failure to act by parents or caretakers that have consent or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive emotional, or mental disorders. ' This can include parents/caretakers using extreme end/oy boxcar forms of punishments, such as confinement in a closet or dork room or being tied to a chair for long periods - of time or threatening or terrorizing a child less severe acts, acts, but no less damaging ore belittling or rejecting treatment, using derogatory terms to describe the child, habitual scapegoat or blaming.
Neglect: the failure to provide for the child's basic needs neglect can be physical, educational, or emotional. Physical neglect can include not providing adequate food or clothing appropriate medical core, supervision, or proper weather .protection (haut or cots). It may include abandonment. Educational neglect includes. Failure to provide appropriate scooting or special educational needs, allowing excessive truancies. Psychological neglect includes the lack of any emotional support and love, never attending to the child, spousal abuse, clung and alcohol abuse including allowing the child to participate in drug and alcohol use physical abuse: the inflicting of physical inpruy upon a child. This may include, brining, hitting, punching, shaking, kicking, beating, or otherwise harming a child. The parent or caretaker may not have intended to hurry the child; the injury is not an accident. It may, however, been the result of over-discipline or physical punishment that is inappropriate to the child's age.
Sexual Abuse: the inappropriate sexual behavior with a child. It includes fondling a child's genitals, making the child fondle the adult's genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, soloing, exhibitionism and sexual exploitation. To consider, child abuse, these acts have to be committed by a person responsible for the care of a child (e.g. a baby-sitter, a parent, or a daycare provider) or related to the child. It a stranger commits these acts it would be conditioned sexual assault and handled solely by the police and criminal courts
Incidences of Child Abusive
- Child trafficking
- Hawking on the street.
iii) Begging in the street
iv) Children living under the bridge
v) Children deprived of standard education
vi) Exposing children to sexual harassment
vii) Preventing child from proper medication
Child abduction These and many more are incidences of child abuse in Nigeria.
Forms of Child Abuse
Child abuse can be categorized into the followings:
Physical abuse
Physical neglect
Verbal abuse
Emotional/Psychological abuse
Street children
Child labour
Child abandonment
Sexual abuse.
The categories listed above are explained below:
Physical Abuse
Physical abuse involves physically harmful actions directed against a child. It involves any inflicted injuries such as bruises, burns, injuries, fractures, poisoning, striking, kicking or any other actions that result into a physical impairment of the child (Ross, 1998). Physical abuse of children can be intentional or unintentional. It can also be an act of omission or commission on the part of parents, elders or caretakers (David, 1979). Physical abuse could lead to severe injuries, bruises, burns, incapacitation, disability or even death. This physical violence may come as a result of lack of physical affection from parents in childhood (Patience, 1996).
Physical Neglect
Physical neglect can be defined as neglect of the physical appearance, nutritional, medical and safety needs of the child. It manifests in unkempt appearance, inappropriate dressing, anger, unbalance diet and non-immunization of children and ante-natal neglect which are aspects of the neglect (Olukoshi, 1990). Child neglect, most times, is unintentional (human reasoning demands that children should be taken care of), however, certain socio economic and cultural constraints may lead to the neglect (Ebigbo, 1989).
Verbal Abuses
This is another form of abuse which is often taken for granted by parents and guardians. Verbal abuse of children has been observed as having negative effects on psychological and emotional development of the child. It is the most commonly used form of abuse. Verbal expressions make a child feel bad (about him or her) and this usually affects the esteem of the child (Patience, 1996).
Emotional/Psychological Abuses
Emotional/Psychological abuse usually starts with physical abuse and emotional neglect. Emotional neglect is a psychological internal perception (Brier, 1992).
The effect of emotional abuse can be crippling. They are usually diagnosed by psychiatrists and psychologists. Emotional abuse is an injury to a child’s emotional psychological self which is meant to be punitive. It is experienced as a form of parental hostility in terms of terrorizing, rejections and insults. It manifests in forms of aggression, retreatism and general feelings of incompetence. Emotional neglect also comes in forms of emotional deprivation, lack of care, love and empathic attention towards a child (Patience, 1996).
Street Hawking
Street hawking by children is another form of abuse. Street hawking encourages sexual abuse. This may occur in three levels: exposure to overt genital seduction, exposure to genital stimulation and witnessing adults in the act of sex. Man may lure young female hawkers by buying up all their wares and giving them money. These girls may be shown pornographic pictures in magazines or pornographic video films or the sexual organs of the would be assailants (Ebigbo and Abaga, 1990).
Child Abandonment
This is another form of child abuse. Child abandonment is the most frequently reported form of child abuse and neglect. Most children involved are usually new born babies and those between the ages of 1-3 years. Children can be abandoned in gutters, pit latrines, on rubbish dumps in the bush or along pathways near places like police stations, hospitals e.t.c where they can be easily seen and cared for.
Child Labour
Child labour is a prominent way of abusing children. In the poorer parts of the world, like Asia, South America and Africa, acute and wide –spread poverty can be seen as the main cause. If children do not work, their own survival is at stake (ILO, 1978). In the African traditional Society, children were source of labour for farming. However, with the emergence of industrialization and urbanization, such practice becomes dysfunctional and contemporary; such practice is referred to as child labour (Ebigbo, 1989).
Child trafficking is particularly pernicious type of child labour. It is a practice through which young people below 18 years are handed over by either one or both parents or by a guardian to a third person, whether for free or with the intention of exploiting the person or the work of the young person.
Child Sexual Abuses
Sexual abuse is defined as ‘involving any minor child in the sexual gratification of an adult’. Sexual abuse includes: oral to genital, genital to genital, rectal contacts and showing pornography to child or using a child in the production of pornographic films (Child Help USA, 2012). Sexual abuse most is commonly practiced by an individual known by the victim, parents or other family member. Rarely is the abuser a stranger. Intra familial and incest sexual abuse is difficult to document and manage because the child in an additional abuse is coerced not to tell or reveal the abuse while attempts are made to preserve the family unit (Child Help USA, 2012). Otesanya (1987), in discussing sexual abuse in Africa, argues that one has to be careful to take cultural peculiarities of the practices into cognizance. For example, some children get married as early as five years, though; sexual intercourse may not come up until she is around ten or twelve years of age, especially in the Northern part of Nigeria where there are several cases of forced marriages and giving out of female child as a gift for marriage.
The Relationship Between Child Abuse and Poverty
Using state-level data on the number of reports and substantiated cases of child maltreatment, Paxson and Waldfogel find more broadly that the socioeconomic status of families does affect levels of child abuse. Maltreatment encompasses a wide range of behaviour that harms children including neglect, physical abuse and other forms of abuse. Children with working mothers and absent fathers are more likely to be subjected to neglect and abuse. So are children with two non-working parents or parents whose income is below 75 percent of the official poverty level.
Paxson and Waldfogel find that increases in the fraction of children in extreme poverty result in increases in maltreatment. For example, if the fraction of children below 75 percent of the poverty line rises from 10 percent to 15 percent in a state, the number of total victims of maltreatment is estimated to rise by 22 percent.
Family structure and parental employment status matter as well. An increase from 10 percent to 15 percent in the fraction of children with a working mother and absent father is predicted to increase substantiated cases of maltreatment by 21 percent. Likewise, an increase from 10 percent to 15 percent in the fraction of children with two unemployed parents is expected to increase maltreatment by 26 percent. However, children with absent fathers and non-working mothers do not appear to be at higher risk for maltreatment than children with two working parents, or a working father and non-working mother.
Absent fathers, unemployed fathers and increased poverty are all associated with increased maltreatment. Poverty has a bigger impact on neglect than on physical abuse, though. If single mothers work, child maltreatment is considerably more likely, possibly because single working mothers are more neglectful or abusive, or because their children are left in the care of someone who is neglectful or abusive. A shift of 1 percent of children from the category of "absent father, non-working mother" to "absent father, working mother" is associated with an increase in substantiated cases of physical abuse of 6.6 percent and an increase in neglect of 12.6 percent, the authors find.
This raises the issue of the impact of welfare benefit cuts on child maltreatment. Where welfare benefits are relatively high, mothers may be more able to stay home and look after their children.
Various forms of child abuse in Nigeria
Children in urban areas are quickly caught up in the daily struggle for survival and material gain (Ebigbo, 2003). Thus the analysis of child abuse and neglect in Nigerian nation, may found that child abandonment, sexual abuse, child neglect, kidnapping and hawking were the most seen forms of child abuse (Ebigbo 2003). It is worrisome, that young girls and boys are sent from rural areas to families in the cities to serve as housemaids and houseboys. This to a reasonable extent has broken the traditional culture which erodes children opportunity for personal growth. Children who work as house helps may also be required either by their parents or their families they serve to sell items for food, clothing and general merchandise on the street. In most cases they are part-time secret traders and subjects to many of the damaging facets of street life. In the eastern parts and western parts of Nigeria children may attend morning or afternoon school and hawk goods out of school hours, though there are some children who trade on the street the whole day. The children income helps their families or house-madams financially or pay for school fees at times for their children against the social contracts they had with their parents from the village to train these children. Although most Nigerian children return home at the end of the day, a growing number including girls, manage to survive and exist on the streets, contrary to the training their masters and madams assumed to offer, researchers like Oloko(1989), Ebigbo & Izuora(1985) kisekkal (1981) supported the argument.
It is on record that 64 million girls worldwide are child abused with 46% of these in south Asian and 41% in west and central Africa. Evidently they marry before the age of 18, (Tell, 2014). The girl –child marriage poses life threatening with risks like VVF, and associated pregnancy related complications which may cause life threatening situations. Consequently, about 140 million girl-children in the world have suffered female genital mutilations, (Tell, 2014). There is a wide traditional cultural shared belief that female genital circumcision will help balance the family relationship.
It is disheartening to observe that in the northern Nigerian Muslim communities are practicing girl-marriage, the case is more seen among the northerners with minimal practice in western and south-south and south-eastern Nigerian and in some parts of the western world. In south eastern part of Nigerian for instance, such cases of getting married to girl-child marriage still exist, especially among the illiterate rural dwellers. The girl-mother is prone to suffer the medical complication at times which is referred to as vesicular vaginal fistula and to tackle the menace; the government established a medical outfit the vesicular vaginal fistula center, to repair females with the medical complications of vesicular vaginal fistula. The centre help the vulnerable females in the country (Ajanwachukwu, 2012). Accordingly, the Muslim religion prohibits girls from becoming pregnant before marriage, encourages early marriage, assumed that a girl should take a husband before her second menstruation. The tradition of early marriage is very difficult to change and has led to abusive practice which is condoned by parents.
The question here is what needed to be done to provide adequate health care facilities to help curb the vesicular vaginal fistula and other related medical complication among the tanagers. The reason is that the economic inequalities has made the rural dwellers to patronize the local birth attendant that will reduce cost and give them lasting injuries in the cause of the delivery. The practice has made girl-child to engage in street hawking to assist the mother to buy household goods for them when they marry, Oloko (1989), UN (2005).
It is interestingly to note that the child whose right are valuated or abused may not even show consent since he or she take it as a normal way of living or what may be called the culture of the people. In some other cases you may see a girl-child to betrothed to a man who is of the father’s age because of the parent’s inability to pay their debts in alternative they use the girl-child to settle the debt without minding the sociological and psychological effects it has on such girl-child. Another worrisome situation in a child abuse is female genital mutilation which is more seen in south eastern Nigeria though it exist in other part of the country at minimal level when compare with south eastern Nigeria. It is a cultural practice that before a girl-child is given out for marriage she must undergo female genital mutilation which is followed by celebration at the end of the process before handing her over to her proposed husband. However, it is assumed that such practice controls sexual excess of a girl-child.
This is so in view of a great campaign against child abuse in Nigerian, as traditional harmful practices. Government and NGO are working hard in the campaign championing the ugly scenario of child abuse with special reference to female genital mutilation and other related child abuse .The traditional condemned method has kept some girl-child at the various risks of life and psychological and clinical negative consequences. The enlightenment campaign of NGO in the fight against child abuse in Nigeria has not yielded desired outcome or result. The condemnable act was omitted in child right act (2003); it needed to have included not having girl-child organ mutilated. This right of a girl –child not to have her genital mutilated was omitted in the act; this is indeed a great omission. The omission is amplified by Igwenyi (2001).
As asserted by Igwenyi (2001), he stated as follows...the child rights act,2003 is a very ambitious legislation which seeks to cover practically all issues of civil and criminal law relating to the child …..That notwithstanding, the act is far less than perfect. For instance, the failure to deal with the obnoxious female genital mutilation is a major defect cited in Ajanwachukwu (2012).it is worrisome, although there is a restriction, some Nigerian children hawking at various places are expressly prohibited by the act.
This is so because in terms of practicality, it is not possible to prohibit street hawking, the harsh economic realities of Nigeria have made that prohibition unattained and the prohibition right can therefore not be guaranteed. In order to make both ends meet, Nigerian children hawk goods or services in streets, roads and high ways of main cities. The act cannot stop it; it is assumed that only robust economy will discouraged it. It cannot be stopped, not even as the statute has so provided. It is endemic in the polity.
It is a fact of common knowledge that at the public highways leading into and out of the major cities of Nigerian, especially the highways leading into and out of the former and present federal capital territories, children are actively involved in hawking to the extent of even obstructing traffic and constituting a clog to the free
flow of traffic. It is the same Nigerian child that hawks at ministries, social, welfare Department, and court premises and nobody seems to show concern. It quite convincing that no child desired to be involved in exploitative labour, but whereas in our economy, there is depression and hardship. A child would voluntarily accept a job that is labour intensive and exploitative just to source money for school fees, future trade or assist the poor parents.
Exploitative labour cannot come to an end by the making of an enactment prohibiting it but would naturally and on its own (without prohibit legislation) end if the economy is robust and parents are rich and would not need their children to do some work to raise some money to assist in the payment of school fees ,or for up keeping and feeding of the family .Nigeria children would not undertake jobs that exploit them if they are jobs opportunities and where the available jobs are not exploitative. Street begging is a welcome development in northern Nigerian communities. Its prohibition may not be convincing since that is their normal way of life. For northern Muslim the almajiri cannot be dispensed with. Again the children whose integrity is being protected by placing a ban on street begging may not appreciate why a religious practice should be banned .This right as in the case of child marriage, although provided for, is not likely to be enjoyed even though provision is made for it. The religious and cultural imperatives undercut the existence for this right.
Some of these children die in the process, while those that are not dead sometimes do not meet their parents and relatives anymore. Some of these children live the homes at such tender ages that they do not know their surnames. By the times they grow, not having known their surnames, they adopt as their surnames, the first of surname of their organic teacher or adopt as their surnames the city where they grew up in. This is a child abuse punishable by law for 10 years.
Effects Of Neglect and Abuse on the Child
In this country and in the world at large, millions of children are exposed to one or more forms of domestic neglect or abuse (Spilsbury et al. 2007). A summary of the Report of the Independent Expert for the United Nations Study on Violence against Children (2008) reveals that annually, 150 million girls and 73 million boys experience rape or other forms of sexual violence throughout the world, and that perpetrators are usually family members of the children. The report stated that annually, more than fifty thousand children fall victim to murder, approximately one or two million children were hospitalized for physical injuries due to violence, whereas only sixteen countries prohibited violence against children, thereby, leaving the vast majority of the children in the world deprived of adequate legal protection (Waterston and Mok 2008). In their study, Goddard and Hiller (1993) revealed that fifty-five percent of the children were subjected to physical abuse, forty percent of the children experienced sexual abuse, and the majority of these children were placed under protection. McGuigan and Pratt (2001) emphasized that the majority of children aged between six months and five years old were subjected to emotional violence by their parents. Physical abuse involves physical violence, such as hitting with the hand or an object, pushing, shaking, burning or biting, directed towards the child by the parents or an adult responsible for the child’s care (Yucel 1993). Physically abused children experience various undesired consequences, ranging from soft tissue injuries to deaths with unknown causes. Loss of memory, growth retardation, speech delay, social withdrawal, limited friends and peer relationships, academic failure and suicidal tendencies, as well as, interpersonal, cognitive, emotional and behavioral problems, are observed in these children. Children who are subjects of continual physical abuse constantly fear their parents, can easily lie to avoid a beating, and can be overly aggressive or overly withdrawn and diffident shying away from physical contact and proximity of an adult (Lewis 1992; Livingston 1987). In addition, impairment in cognitive skills and academic failure is frequently observed in these children (Kaplan et al. 1999; Gokler 2002). Furthermore, suicidal ideation and suicide attempts are more common in physically abused children (Tackett 2002). Sexual abuse is a form of child abuse, in which an adult uses a child as a means to satisfy his/ her sexual needs and desires (Green 1996). According to the National sexual violence resource center report (2015), one in four girls and one in six boys will be sexually abused before they turn 18 years. 12.3 percent of women and 27.8 percent of men were age 10 or younger at the time of their first rape or victimization (Black et al. 2011). Sexual abuse was reported to be more frequent in families with divorced parents, domestic violence, alcohol and substance use, but can be experienced at any socioeconomic level (Hedin 2000). Most of the time, there is no physical indication of sexual abuse. However, in some cases, a medical examination can reveal certain indications. In sexually abused children, symptoms include abnormal or complete lack of interest in sexual activities, sleep disorders or nightmares, phobias, bedwetting, depression or estrangement from family members or friends, behavioral problems, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, lack of appetite and weight loss, being frequently ill, believing their bodies are dirty or there is something wrong with their genitals, not wanting to attend school, abnormal misbehavior and disobedience, overly aggres sive behavior, and the avoidance of drawings or games expressive of sexual abuse (Green 1996). Sexually abused children experience higher rates of depression and significantly low self-esteem. Therefore, suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in sexually abused children are more frequently observed with increasing age (Livingston 1987). Sexually abused individuals either avoid establishing relationships or have a tendency to show excessive closeness and have numerous, overly demanding and controlling relationships. Both styles are dysfunctional and are likely to result in loneliness (Tackett 2002). The child is forced to quit school due to economic difficulties the family faces, and to find employment in order to survive in the time of economic poverty and to support his/her family in their struggle against poverty. The environment and type of work is generally, physically, and mentally unsuitable for children and endangers their physical and psychological wellbeing. Children are deprived of their childhood and their right to play and receive education, as well as, have health problems due to economic abuse and unhealthy working conditions (Yagci 2006). Emotionally neglected and abused children are exposed to attitudes and behaviors that have negative impacts or are deprived of the attention, love and care they need, and therefore, they are psychologically traumatized according to social and scientific standards (Kara et al. 2004). Kent and Waller (1998) revealed that children’s anxiety and depression levels were adversely affected by emotional abuse. In their studies investigating emotional abuse in adolescents, Mullen et al. (1996) and Savi (1999) emphasized that a sense of self in adolescents was negatively affected with increasing degrees of emotional abuse. Children, who experience emotional neglect and abuse become estranged from their families, are stressful, feel worthless, develop a dependent personality, and display maladjusted and aggressive behavior. These children have mixed emotions for their parents, such as having the feeling of love and hatred simultaneously, fear of abandonment, fear of expressing emotions, fear of injury, feeling angry for the violence and disorder in their lives, depression, feeling helpless and powerless, and feeling ashamed of domestic incidents. Ozturk (2007) reported that emotional abuse adversely affected children’s personality development. Traumas resulting from emotional neglect and abuse are as harmful as those of physical abuse, yet their symptoms cannot be easily observed (Polat 2002; Jain 1999). Recent studies have revealed the negative impacts of child neglect on children. Research on juvenile delinquency reported higher criminal tendencies in children neglected by their families. According to the results of the review article by Smith and Walters (1987) on fathers and their role in the family, fathers contribute more to delinquency in male children than the mothers (Ulugtekin 1991). Furthermore, neglected children also experience difficulties with respect to food, accommodation, clothing, hygiene, play, education, safety and medical care .
Preventing Child Neglect and Abuse
Article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child currently ratified by almost every country, pertains to children’s right to protection from neglect and abuse (Gokler 2002). For a physically and psychologically healthy generation, the issue of neglect and abuse should be tackled from a social level and solutions should be proposed as a society (Bildik 2002; Turhan et al. 2006). All members of different professions involved either directly or indirectly with children, should work in harmony to ensure successful prevention, intervention and supervision. In Australia, a system consisting of physicians, nurses, police officers, social workers, judges, probation officers, teachers and members of other professions employed in child protection or responsible for abused children, works in harmony for the protection and care of traumatized children and children at risk. Coordination eliminates discrepancies in practices and ensures effective implementation. All practices throughout the country should be non-conflicting. Coordination is critical for the effective and systematic implementation of all practices. Furthermore, universities, relevant public institutions and implementation areas, should work in harmony in the needs analysis and in the preparation of programs and practices, as well as in research. The significance and necessity of coordination in making effective policies should be emphasized (Mathias et al. 1995). Children who are victims of abuse suffer from its effects for the rest of their lives. While the family environment is considered to be a place where children feel the safest, it is also where they are prone to a higher risk. Therefore, society, families and teachers should be informed about child discipline and abuse. For example, parents, teacher or members of different professions, providing services in cases of sexual abuse, should be informed through meetings or seminars, in order to educate children on how to protect themselves when faced with sexual abuse and how to say “no” (Ziyalar 1999). Fighting against neglect and abuse is the responsibility of each and every member of the society. Particularly, health professionals, social workers, as well as psychological counseling and guidance experts, should be more aware of the issue. Creating more awareness among members of these professions, who should be supported in their efforts to provide counseling services to neglected or abused children, is integral in identifying families more disposed to commit child neglect and abuse (Bildik 2002; Keskin and Cam 2005). Stress in the family is one of the causes of child neglect and abuse. Solutions for coping with family stress can be better and easily proposed after identifying whether the stress is economic or social. Training activities for neglect and abuse prevention involve the identification of people at risk, provision of counseling and protective services, in addition to conflict and stress management training (Bildik 2002; Keskin and Cam 2005). Children who are victims of abuse experience losses in various domains. The most severe and irreparable is the loss of childhood. Loss of selfconfidence, and desperation, severely affect the lives of these children. They suffer from chronic depression and anxiety. Therefore, a comprehensive posttraumatic program must be developed for both the child and the family (Kaya et al. 2004). Sustainability of parent training programs for families can be revised by making necessary adjustments. Participation of families at all levels and with varying needs, should be taken into account. Families might lack the knowledge and skills to conduct a needs analysis. Parent training programs should focus on helping parents recognize their abilities and incompetency. Reluctance of families to participate in the program resulting from the administration of the same program to families, with various levels of knowledge and needs, can be alleviated through these adjustments (Olds et al. 1997).
Factors Precipitating Child Abuse and Neglect in Nigeria
Understanding the factors that contribute to child abuse problem will help us frame our own local analytical questions, determine good effectiveness measures, recognize key intervention points, and select appropriate responses
Victims
Statistics have shown in 2005 that across all types of maltreatment, newborns to three-year-olds had the highest victimization rates and more than half were seven or younger. About half of all victims were boys, and half girls. In America, White and Hispanic children have lower victimization rates than children of other ethnicities. The victims profile is somewhat different depending on the individual type of maltreatment.
Physical abuse: the risk of physical abuse decreases as the child gets older, although adolescents are also victims of it. Boys and girls are equally at risk of minor physical abuse, although boys are slightly more likely to sustain injuries. Physical abuse occurs disproportional among economically disadvantaged families; income also affects the severity of abuse. Caretakers who physically abuse their children tend to experience high stress (e.g., from single-parenting, health problems, unemployment, poverty) and may have poorly developed coping skills.
They may also struggle with personality factors such as low self-esteem, poor impulse control, depression, and low frustration tolerance, their expectation for their child may exceed the child’s developmental capacity. As a result, they may not interact well with their Children and they tend to use more punitive discipline. Perhaps because mothers spend more time with their children, perpetrators are slightly more likely to be female than male. Further, normal adolescent defiance and rebellion increases family tension and may frustrate parents, who respond with excessive punishment. When confronted, physically abusive caretakers tend to offer illogical, unconvincing, or contradictory explanations for child’s injury.
Children are at highest risk of sexual abuse from age’s seven to twelve, although sexual abuse among every young child does occur and is often undetected because of their inability to communicate what is happening to them. Sexual abuse victims tend to be selected because they are vulnerable in some way (e.g very young, passive, quiet, and needy). Girls are significantly more likely to be sexually abused than boys, although it is possible that boys are simply less likely to report their victimization.
Neglect: the risk of neglect generally declines with age. The mean age of victims of neglect is six years old. Boys and girls are equally at risk of neglect.
Children are never responsible for their victimization, but certain characteristics increase their vulnerability.
Children’s need for attention and affection is their single most exploitable characteristics, particularly in the case of sexual abuse, a trusted adult may take advantage of a child’s natural curiosity, desire to be included, and need for affection. The relationship between children and their caretakers makes it difficult for children to interpret what is happening to them as “abuse”. A victim may also feel a sense of loyalty to the abuser, and while the victim may want the abuse to stop, but he or she may not want the perpetrator to be punished. Children with disabilities are extremely dependent on adults, and its dependence limits their ability to protect themselves and, in some situation, they may have the ability to disclose what is happening to them.
Sexual abusers are usually in a position of authority or trust over their victims. They are usually male and typically in their early 30s, although a significant proportion are adolescents (e.g., siblings or babysitters). Offenders who victimize family member tend to have only one or two victims (usually female), while non- relative offenders tend to have a much larger number of victims (usually male). The feelings of inadequacy, depressions, isolation, rigid values, and deviant arousal patterns contribute to their feelings. Once they have selected a vulnerable victim, perpetrators generally ‘’groom’’ the victim by progressing from non sexual touching to sexual activity. They may use their authority to force their victims to participate, or may use various forms of enticements and coercion. Using bribes, threats, isolation, or physical aggression, perpetrators also persuade their victims to remain silent about the abuse so that other adult cannot intervene.
Repeat Victimization
For many children who have experienced maltreatment, the efforts of police, child protective services, and other social services have been insufficient and will not prevent repeat victimization. In 2005, in Nigeria, approximately 6 percent of victims experienced another incident of abuse or neglect within six months of a substantiated finding of maltreatment. One study found out that the highest risk of subsequent abuse was within 30 to 60 days after the initial report. The Situation that increases the risk of subsequent victimization which preclude, caretaker substance abuse and criminal behavior, and the lack of police involvement in the initial investigation.
Perpetrators
Child abuse occurs in all cultural, ethnic, occupational, and socioeconomic groups. A parents ‘s likelihood of mistreating his or her children is rarely the result of any single factors , but rather results from a combination of circumstances and personality types . While certain factors may be prevalent among perpetrators, the mere presence of a situation or particular trait does not mean that maltreatment will always occur.
Family Factors
Children in single –parent families may be at higher risk of physical abuse and neglect, although the effects of poverty, stress, social isolation, and lack of support are all contributing factors. Risk is reduced for the children of single mothers when the children have a relationship with their fathers. In two-parent families, the risk of maltreatment is greater if marital conflict or domestic violence is also present. Neglectful parents tend to have more children and more people living in the household. Neglected children’s homes are characterized by chaos and an ever- changing constellation of adult and child residents.
Environment factors
Families living in areas challenged by poverty and employment, particularly when coupled with the individual and family factors described above, are at higher risk of child abuse and neglect. The degree of social support available to parents, along with community attitudes about raising children and using punishment, can also contribute to the risk of child maltreatment.
Prevalence Of Child Abuse And Its Implication For Educational System
The different forms of abuse stated above occur in schools in very subtle way and could have damaging effects on children’s educational development. Some of these abuses are enumerated hereunder. This is exhaustive but shows that abuse is ongoing in some schools.
Physical abuse is one form of abuse that persistently occurs in schools especially in the form of correction or corporal punishment. According to Straus (1994) corporal punishment is the use of physical force with the intension of causing bodily pain, but not injury for the purpose of correction or control. In many schools in the USA, corporal punishment is being held in high esteem as a way of correcting and instilling discipline in young children. Even though spanking is culturally approved for correcting children most times, some teachers do this in anger and in the process the child is left injured and physically inflicted with bruises and pains.
Most times, the teachers fail to listen to students’ apparent show of some misbehavior. They hold more strongly to their beliefs and ideals that they are unwilling to hear the students out. Thus they unleash corporal punishment on the students made them scared and unwilling to attend school. Agnew (1983) however advised against the use of physical punishment as it may lead to children committing delinquent act such as abandoning school.
In recent times, the use of more positive forms of behavior modification is advocated such as persuasion, appeal to reason and good judgment and the reward for desirable forms of behavior. In addition, there is also the belief that there should be unconditional acceptance and regard for the learner and recognition that the child is worthy and should be treated not as an animal but a human being with feelings. It is believed that if these strategies are used, children will be willing to attend and be active partakers in the education system.
Confining students to dark rooms is used in many schools as a form of punishment. In one school, a child reported that those who did not pay School fees were packed into the assembly hall and looked up until the school was over. The school ended up punishing innocent children instead of their parents whose responsibility it is to pay the fees. The children are not only embarrassed but missed out on what was taught during those periods of confinement as those lessons would not be repeated again even after they had their fees paid. Teachers have also been found wanting for their inability to provide love, support, care and guidance to children under their care. A particular instance was reported where a child had stayed for the first three years in school and could not handle a pencil. On interview, it was found that the teacher completely abandoned the child because he was slow in learning. It took the intervention of a lesson teacher and parents extra coaching to train the child to write. This shows the inability of the teacher to provide appropriate guidance needed by the child. Bullying is another form of emotional abuse that takes place in schools.
The senior or older students who should provide emotional support for the younger and new students easily bully them. This can easily affect the children and make them withdraw from associating with other peers and this could lead to personal – social maladjustment. The points enumerated show that teachers and school authorities intentionally or unintentionally indulge in emotional abuse which ultimately affects the child’s ability to learn. This can also distract them from gaining meaningfully from the process of education leading to eventual abandonment of school. Learning can only take place in a conducive environment that promotes cordial relationship between the teacher and the learner. Thus the United Nations convention on the rights of the child and the African union charter on the rights and welfare of the child provide for the protection of the child against physical and psychological abuse, discrimination and all forms of threat, be it with weapons or words.
Incidence of sexual abuse abounds everywhere in homes, schools and the society and interferes with the normal, healthy development of the child. In schools especially where there are young male teachers, there is tendency for the teachers to take advantage of the young, innocent, and harmless and naïve school girls’
.some teachers lure these students who sometimes transfer their parental affection to them, into having illicit affairs and relationship. At other times, the teachers deny the students their right and grades in demand for sexual gratification.
The relationship is not only between male teachers and female students but also extends to that between male teachers and male students especially in the boys ‘school. These male teachers do not only fondle and play with the students genitals but also may force these young ones to play with their own and go ahead to commit homosexual acts . The same also goes for the relationship between female teachers and female students especially in girls’ school. Incidence of lesbianism occurs frequently and the students may find it difficult to report these cases.
Teachers should realize that they are called into profession to safeguard and protect the young ones under their care and as such should create an environment devoid of any hindrance to students’ active participation in schools.
The consequences of sexual activities involving teenage students and their schools teachers include unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) which could lead to eventual withdrawal of the child from school. In schools, some form of neglect can be identified which can have damaging effect on the educational development of a child. In terms of physical neglect, some schools may fail to provide adequate supervision, safety and hygiene for their school children. In this era where children under two years are sent to school, it sometimes becomes too cumbersome for teachers to deal with a large number of them at the same time providing the proper attention that is required.
As a result of not providing appropriate schools needs for the children such as good seating arrangement, enough classrooms, writing boards and other schools materials, children are made to learn under very hard and harsh schools conditions. It is not uncommon in public primary schools to find children studying in a classroom with leaking roof or under shades of trees or very dilapidated classroom blocks. This gives room for children to play truancy which will ultimately have very serious effect on their learning ability.
Very few teachers if there are any , have time to attend to the emotional needs of the pupils in their classroom, sometimes a child comes in late to schools, sleeps through the class period or pays no attention in the classroom and yet the teachers
do not show any affection or love towards such children . This may have been children rejected by their parents who now feel that the best place to send them is the school. At the school, the child is made to feel less than a human being. Such a child becomes alienated and may withdraw from the school. Guadin, Polansky, Ammory & Davis (1985) reported that neglected children have worst delays in language comprehension and expression while the psychological neglected children score lowest in intelligent Quotient tests. It therefore becomes pertinent that teachers and the schools authority should pay attention to the needs of each and every pupil in the classroom in order to encourage pupils learning.
Child exploitation apart from being carried out at home by the parents also takes place in the school. Some teachers use children to work in their farm. Children are also sent out by their teachers to fetch water, cook, and wash clothes at the time they should be learning. Some of the children are not conversant with these kinds of works and it therefore present challenges and could affect their health. The precious time that could have been used for studying is wasted on jobs that have no relevant to academic pursuit and this can have serious effect on students ‘ability to concentrate in the class. This type of trend should be seriously investigated and teachers warned to desist from such acts.
The Problems Of Child Abuse And Neglect In Nigeria
This guide begins by describing the problem of child abuse and neglect in the home, and reviewing factors that increase its risks. It identifies a series of question to help you analyze your local child maltreatment problem. Finally, it reviews response to the problem and what is known about them from evaluative research and police practice. This guide is not intended to provide specific guidance on investigative techniques. American prosecutor research institute , national center for prosecution of child abuse (2004),California commission on peace officer standards and training (1998), Sahonchic, Columbo, Boggis & Coleman (1996)for detailed guidance on investigating allegations of child abuse and neglect. Child abuse and neglect in the home is but one aspect of the larger set of problems related to child maltreatment that occurs in a variety of places and by people with varied relationships to the victim. This guide is limited to addressing the particular harms created by child abuse and neglect that occurs in the home, typically by the child’s caretaker or someone close to the caretaker (e.g., the mother’s boyfriend). Related problems not directly addressed in this guide, each of which requires separate analysis, include:
Child physical and sexual abuse in institutions (e.g., correctional facilities, churches, youth organization, foster care);
Commercial sexual exploitation of children and organized child sex rings;
Child pornography on the internet;
Child fatalities (including shaken – baby death and Munchausen syndrome by proxy);
Child abuse among immigrant populations (e.g., excessive discipline of children or other instances in which cultural norms conflict with child welfare laws). Exposure of children to hazardous materials (see, also clandestine methamphetamine labs in this series); abandoned children; and juvenile runaways. Some of these related problems are covered in other guides in this series, all of which are listed at the end of this guide. For the most up-to-date listing of current and future guides see www.popcenter.org.
Child maltreatment is a leading cause of childhood serious injuries and fatalities. As the most widely available helping professionals in communities, police have a
natural role in preventing and responding to child abuse and neglect. Not only are police legally mandated to enforce the law and protect residents and maintain safety, but also they are generally committed to children’s welfare.
2.2 THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory is a relatively new, open-ended theory with eclectic underpinnings, intended as a revision of psychoanalytic theory, particularly Freudian instinct theory and meta-psychology; it has been infused by present –day biological principles with an emphasis on ethnology and evolutionary theory, as well as by control-systems theory and cognitive psychology. Although it began with an attempt to understand the disturbed functioning of individuals who had experienced traumatic losses or early separations, it is a theory of normal development that offers explanations for some types of a typical development (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980). Since Bowlby’s preliminary formulation (bowlby, 1987), it has stimulated research into socio-emotional development and growth of interpersonal relationship and has been responsive to the findings of such research with continuous clarification, refinements, and extension of applications. For example, it suggests a causal relationship between anomalies of attachment in the parent and abuse of the child (Ainsworth, 1980). Ethological theory proposes that there are species –characteristics patterns of behavior that have evolved because they function to promote species survival – or to be more specific, gene survival. The propensity to develop these behaviors is transmitted genetically and evoked by specific and expectable internal and environmental conditions. Attachment theory applies this principle to the almost universal occurrence of infant attachment to the parent and of parental care giving to the infant, as well as to attachment components in close relationships between adult partners (Ainsworth, 1985, Bowlby, 1969, 1979).
2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
One of the basic principles of the international convention on the right of the child is that every child must be protected against all forms of exploitation, indecent or degrading treatment, including child labor, abduction and sale (UNICEF. 2000). According to UNICEF, Exploiting the labor of a child means employing a person below the age of 15 years and paying him/her less than the minimum standard wage. The international labor organization estimates that there are 246 million working children aged between five and seventeen worldwide (Anti-slavery international 2002). At least 179 million are estimated to work in the worst forms of child labor- one out of the world’s five to seventeen years old. According to the ILO (2006), 111 million children under 15 are in hazardous work and should be immediately withdrawn from this work.
ILO (1996-12) states that approximately 130,000 children work in India’s hand – knotted carpet industry, 80% of whom are located in utter Pradesh, the country’s most populous state (over 140million people) and the centre of the rug industry. ILO described the working conditions as often poor, involving long hours, sitting in one position, breathing cotton and wool fibers, eyestrain from doing very fine work and poor lightening. WHEAT (2002) Expressed shock at the hard work children do in some parts of Ghana. She visited a quarry worked by children and their mothers. According to her, there she witnessed children and adults working in some of the hardest conditions imagined. Thus, Wheat (2002:17) observes: it has been observed that children stand a great risk of workplace violence. ILO (2006:31) states that in a world where workplace violence is on the rise, children are the most vulnerable. According to ILO, little hard data is available but evidence points toward an increase in the phenomenon, both in industrialized and developing countries. Thus, according to a United Nations study, while many of the world’s more than 200 millions child laborers experience systematic violence, some 100 millions legally employed adolescents are also affected (www, viloencestudy.org). The study identified the most common forms of violence against children in the workplace as physical, psychological, verbal or sexual (ILO2006:31)
It has been suggested that child labour should be replaced with Education. Worldwide, the link between improving access to Education and ending child labour are increasingly recognized (ILO 2009). ILO made references to a circus school on the coast of Morocco, an innovative community effort among many to get children out of work and into school.
According to Danesy and Busari (2005), sudden death of one or both parents usually results in a child being raised by foster parents with a tendency of devastating effects such as harsh treatment, neglect, battering and hawking. This agrees to Wilson-Oyelaran’s (1989) conclusion that physical abuse and child labour are two common forms of child abuse in Nigeria.
Ebigbo (2006) citing the 2003 united Nations Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) report on child abuse, revealed that in Nigeria , Child mortality rates by Age one is 109 out of 1000 live births, while 217 dies before the age of five . He added that over six million Children (37percent of boys and 43 percent of girls) are not in school; fifteen million children (7.8 million boys and 7.2 million girls) are working, out of which two million works for up to fifteen hours or more per day. These kinds of work deprive the children of their freedom and dignity, because such works are mentally, physically, and morally dangerous, depriving the Children of proper development. Oloko (2006) also related child abuse to human trafficking in terms of recruitment, transfer, harbor, transportation and receipt of children through deception, or across borders with a purpose of restraining such children in a situation of enslavement, servitude, debt or bondage.
Madubuko (1989) reported that neglected children in Enugu wore torn clothes, torn shoes, were often hungry , had no pocket money , and trekked long distances to school.
Obidigbo (1999) established that out of 120 teachers used for his study, 82.5 percent reported that street hawking leads to child abuse and neglect,79.16percent agreed that breeding many children causes child abuse, 91.66 percent subscribed to the factor of low economic status while the same 91.66 percent also reported that broken home was a hallmark of child abuse.