FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SCHOOL DROPOUT AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
DROP OUT
A dropout as defined by Kamla-Raj (2007) is any student, who for one reason or the other leaves school prematurely before graduation, without transferring to another school. This is most common in rural areas where there is abject poverty, ignorance and children form a recognizable part of the family labour force. De Cos (2005) also stated that dropout is the ultimate withdrawal from school as student who withdraw from senior secondary school prematurely end up not obtaining any certificate of graduation. The term “dropout” qualifies those students who could not complete their education programme at any level of education due to one reason or the other, as posited by Ayodele and Bada (2007). Dropping out from school occurs after children have previously achieved access to school.Teenagers between ages thirteen and nineteen who have failed to complete their senior secondary school education tend to become problem to themselves, parents and the society at large. Peer influence, delinquency and the desires to become a millionaire within a day makes it difficult for majority of the students to concentrate on their studies thereby increasing the dropout rate (Fehintola and Olugbenga, 2014). Dropouts within our community are found with different characteristics such as inferiority complex, joblessness, over-ambitiousness, laziness, lack of self-discipline, non-purposive striving, poor intelligence, low self-esteem, low self-concept, low cognition skill, non-creativeness, dependency, inability to make good decision, aggressiveness, frustration, lack of vision or goal, conformity, poor time management, fantasies, among others. These characteristics have left dropouts to various maladjusted behaviours within the society and this has become a great challenge for educators, parents, employers and the governments.
CAUSES OF DROP OUT
Ajaja D.(2012) classified causes of students drop out globally into four clusters. These include school related, job related, family related, and community related.
While breaking the clusters down, Frendenberg and Ruglls (2007) identified twenty four factors under family cluster; three factors under community cluster and twelve factors under school cluster.
The factors identified under family cluster include; low family socioeconomic status, racial or ethnic groups, male, special education status, low family support for education, low parental education, residential mobility, low social conformity, low acceptance of adult authority, high level of social isolation, disruptive behaviour conduct, being held back in school, poor academic achievement, academic problems in early grades, not liking school, feelings of “not fitting in” and of not belonging, perceptions of unfair or harsh disciplines, feeling unsafe in school, not engaged in school, being suspended or expelled, conflicts between work and school, having to work and school, having to work or support family, substance use and pregnancy.
In community cluster, the following factors were identified: living in a low income neighbourhood, having peers with low educational aspirations and having friends or siblings who are dropouts. Under school related cluster, these factors were identified; low socioeconomic status of school population, high level of racial or ethnic segregation of students, high proportion of students of colour in high school, high proportion of students enrolled in special education, location in central city, large school district, school safety and disciplinary policies, high-stakes testing, and discrepancy between the racial or ethnic composition of students and faculty.
Job related cluster entails: those students who could not work and school at the same time, those who had to do a job to survive and those who found job. It is noteworthy that all these factors can be encapsulated into school factor and the economic factor of parents. Economic factor of parents determines the kind of community to be lived in, level of concentration of the child in school without interruption with menial jobs while also determining family related issues to an extent. Unlike in developing countries where socio-economic and school factor are the causes of student dropout, school factor is the major source of concern in the developed ones.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SCHOOL DROP OUT AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTIN NIGERIA
This issue of drop out is a global problem confronting the education industry of most countries of the world as observed by Mohsin et al. (2004), De Cos (2005), Bridgeland et al. (2006), and Oghuvbu (2008). For example, the global figure of out of school and dropout children according to UNICEF are estimated at 121 million, with 65 million being female children and 80% of these female children being in Sub Saharan Africa (Kainuwa et al, 2018).
According to United Nation (2013), progression to the next education level is also a challenge. In fact, among class 6 students who are between 13 to 14 years, only 53% transitioned to secondary school and the secondary school completion rate is even lower. A high percentage of students never finish secondary school and only 29% of those who started school graduated secondary school at the official graduating age of 17 years old. Even if there is a delay up to age 24, only 75% finish secondary school and the remaining 25% never finish secondary school. The issue of dropout in schools is not a new terminology in Nigeria educational system as it is an issue successive government at all levels since independence has been battling with.
Fafunwa (1983) noted that dropout is one of the most serious problems that have continued to bedevil Nigeria‟s educational system since independence in 1960 starting from the colonial administration and as also noted by Ajaja (2012) that even before independence, the problem of dropout has already established its grip on the educational system.
Different studies have been carried out on the causes of student dropout from secondary school in Nigeria and the results have shown them to be multifaceted. While the cause of school dropout in some countries might fall under one or two clusters as discussed earlier, Nigeria possesses all the four clusters especially the economic factor of parent.
For instance, in Ondo state, south-western part of the country, Oyinloye (2015) posited that lack of interest in school work, poor academic performance, poverty and failure are some of the causes of student dropout from school.
According to Yusuf (2008), there is high poverty rate among parents which may be attributed to economic factors. This may have relationship with their inability to meet the financial demands for their children schooling. Cost of transportation to and from school on daily basis, school fees, PTA fees, uniform fees and other items, provision of other daily monetary demands to the children, cost of text books and other school materials are found to be a burden for some of the parents which negatively affected the secondary education of their children (Kainuwa, 2014). As a result, parents choose to take their children out of school and involve them in activities that produce income such as working on the farm, and many times these activities are illegal, immoral, and extremely detrimental to the lives of the children (National Bureau of Statistics, 2009; United Nations, 2008).
The studies by National center for Education Statistics (1998), Vermont Agency of Human Services (1999), De Cos (2005) and Bridgeland et al (2006) identified five major reasons why students dropout of school in U.S. These include; (i) classes not interesting, (ii) missed school for many days and could not cope again, (iii) spent a lot of time with those not interested in school, (iv) have absolute freedom to do what I like and (v) failing in school.
Most of the researches on the causes of dropout in Nigeria isolated the following:
(i) Poor educational background of parents,
(ii) inability of parents to pay their children school fees,
(iii) failure in school examination
(iv) very poor state of facilities in schools
(v) broken homes
(vi) types of parents occupation
(vii) school discipline policies
(viii) teenage pregnancy
(ix) early marriage and
(x) very early ambition for self business and employment.
While studying the causes of dropout in north-central part of Nigeria, Arowolo et al. (2016) indicated that school and family factors are the causes of dropout. He observed that the students have nonchalant attitude towards their academics in which laziness; truancy and hooliganism are the root causes. In the family, most parents are poor to the extent that they cannot pay the school fees of their wards while some seems not to have time for their children, and some parents are no longer monitoring the activities of their children in schools even at home because of pursuit of daily bread and material wealth. The region being the food basket region of the country, Arowolo et al. (2016) noticed high dropout from school during harvest time and absenteeism on market days particularly in the rural areas. Also, domestic work of female demands affects children education. Cultural practices and institutions including early marriage for females, home services, pregnancy, sexual harassment, and employment in domestic market activities significantly contribute to student dropout in the region.
EFFECT OF SCHOOL DROP OUT
The consequences of drop out from school are multidimensional and numerous in Nigeria. Firstly, the incidence of dropouts has led to the eruption of so many social vices. According to Ajaja (2012), the high level of youths‟ restiveness is constituted by individuals who dropped out of senior secondary schools programme. In the south, for instance, members of various militant groups across the country are made up of youths between ages fifteen to twenty who dropped out of senior secondary school programme. They are used by politician to advocate for resource control in the oil-rich Niger-delta. In the north, there are the “Almanjeris” who are used by politicians to protest political issues, policies, ethnicity and religion bigotry. They kill, maim and burn down properties without any remorse. Most, if not all of the “Almanjeris” do not have access to western education (Fehintola and Olugbenga, 2014). Some that are not used by politicians are involved in full-time robbery, kidnapping and assassinations for pecuniary gains, they are seen on the highways, they live and abide in nearby bushes, and they constitute nuisance in the society. In fact, the state of insecurity in Nigeria today is ascribed to criminal activities of the youths who are dropped out of school. The recent development about gang of suicide bombers in the northern part of Nigeria is no doubt one of the consequences of drop out of our youths from senior secondary school.
According to De Cos (2005), with the recent economy changing from a dependence on manufacturing towards more reliance on technology, services, and a “knowledge economy”, it is important that students complete their senior secondary school programme in other to gain the required skills for job opportunity. Societal ills that dropout from school cause are too numerous to quantify.
According to Aja-Okorie (2017), high rate of school dropouts undermines opportunity to manpower development and it is very inimical to capacity building. When students drop out from school programmes, they are deprived from possessing requisite skills and knowledge required of them to be able to adapt to the societal demand. It equally robs the society of its long term prospects of achieving its set developmental goals and social transformation agenda. Dropping out from schools carries the seed of backwardness, retardation as well as creates limitations to providing skilled manpower for accelerated human capital development. The stoppage or termination of educational pursuit or, and even before completion of full educational programme creates situations that not only help to deter individual but over all human development (Oforma, 2009). Aja-Okorie (2017) further posited that in any society where there is a high rate of school dropout, there is shortage of skilled manpower and inherent poverty among public. Clearly any country without adequate human development finds it difficult to effectively dispense other resources for development. Therefore, there is a link between countries with low skilled manpower and high dropouts of students from schools. Ahmad and Najeemah (2013) reiterated that students school dropout is a scourge that not only impairs students from obtaining certificates for possible middle class employment opportunities but also for reaching his potential in life and thereby limiting his long term contributions to national economic growth. Donzomah (2004) also found out that school dropout increases the total costs of educating a particular generation, thereby retarding natural growth. Results on long term implications of school dropout among male secondary school students in Ohaozara L.G.A. of Enugu state by Aja-Okorie (2017) include inability to secure good jobs, a future life of envy and hatred, possibility of abusive parents, social rejection and difficulty in attracting ones‟ dreamed partner in life. His results aligns with Osakwe and Osagie (2010), whose study revealed long-term implication of school dropout to include social maladjustment, child abuse and neglect, irresponsible parenting, low self-esteem, envy and hatred, etc.
REMEDIES TO STUDENT’S DROPOUT
To combat the challenges of school dropout in order to reduce it to the barest minimum, all stakeholders involve in education industry must play their role.
1. Parents who are the first stakeholder in this industry as well as the first teacher and role model to the children should show more concern in their children/ward‟s interest in education and finance their education. For those in the rural areas, they should be creative in thinking to find after-school works that will enable their children/wards to contribute to their family upkeeps instead of sending them to the streets to hawk. Considering the negative consequences of street hawking and unwanted pregnancies by female students, parents should shun sending their children/wards into the streets to hawk goods (Lekwa and Anyaog, 2016). The home being the foundation of the society, parents should therefore, acknowledge this fact and ensure their families make meaningful contributions towards the building of a virile education for the nation.
2. Being saddled with leadership and governance of Nigerians, government at local, state and federal level should as a matter of urgency map out strategies to combat the issue of student dropout. Government should provide opportunity for teachers to be trained for effectiveness as more teachers should also be employed to improve efficiency in the schools. They should be equitably distributed and social amenities put in place in the rural areas to retain teachers with financial benefits and encouragement.
3. Schools inspection and supervision should be intensified to increase efficiency and quality in the educational system. Since bulk of the students attends public schools, it should be monitored while the private schools should be encouraged to maintain high standard. Scholarship programmes should be brought back to the elementary schools to encourage those pupils who are naturally endowed but have financial difficulty in the pursuit of their educational career.
4. Government should make possible and available the access to credit facilities for education at all levels. Inspectors should always be monitored by higher authorities while there is need to ascertain the authenticity of their reports and government should enforce all household to enrol their wards in schools especially at the elementary level and ensure that they attend regularly.
5. Furthermore, the principals should improve the social conditions in their schools to give students the motivation to stay in school, gain knowledge and skills through hard work while secondary schools should be provided with appropriate and adequate instructional facilities and materials to facilitate learning and retain interest for learning.
6. Counselors should be appointed in schools and there should be close working relationship between teachers, and school counselors as various counselling measures that can nib the tendency to drop out of school should be employed and a drawback to school strategies should also be employed (Oyinloye, 2015).
7. The school should provide a conducive learning environment that will assist students to learn and desire to stay in school and struggling students should be encouraged. According to Bridgeland et al (2006), there should be improved teaching and curricula to make school more relevant and engaging in order to enhance the connection between school and work; there should be improvement in instruction and access to support for struggling students; there should be strong adult-student relationships within the school; there should be a strong student relationships within the school; and there should be an improved communication between parents and school.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In theoretical framework five alternative theories identified by Battin-Pearson (2000) are used. The Academic Mediation theory, the General Deviance theory, the Structural Strains theory, the Family Socialization theory and the Deviant Affiliation theory. These five theories concern drop out of school with the main focus on different sets of predictors, and include individual as well as structural reasons.
Academic Mediation theory
The Academic Mediation theory concentrates on explaining the connection between academic achievement and drop out of an educational facility. Meaning, that the strongest predictor for students to drop out of school is a poor academic presentation, usually in form of standardized tests or grade point average (Battin-Pearson 2000, p. 569-570). Battin-Pearson uses other studies when formulating theories. In this specific theory he uses studies written by Harachi, Abbott, Catalano (1996); Maguin, Loeber (1996) and Hawkins, Catalano and Miller (1992). The main message from these studies, which was incorporated in this theory was school bonding. This school bonding is connected to students presentation at school. Those who are engaged and have a motivation to succeed in school are doing better academically and less likely to quit school. This means, those who have a low academic achievement, probably has a low bonding to school and are more likely to drop out of a current education level (Battin-Pearson 2000, p. 569-570).
General Deviance theory
The second theory which Battin-Pearson identified focuses on the relationship between deviant behaviour and dropout rates (Battin-Pearson 2000, p.570). This theory is based on other studies; for exempel studies done by Garnier (1997) and Rumberger (1983). According to Garnier, level of family's’ commitment to different lifestyles and values is a predictor for children's probability of dropping out of the school. She writes that childrens early lifes exposure to drug use will affect their development (Garnier, et al 1997, p.395). In other words, she identifies the drug as predictor for students to drop out of school. In this theory was also incorporated Rumbergers study (1983). As the main factor for girls to drop out of school identifying, pregnancy (Rumberger 1983, p.199). The General Deviance theory argues, that this type of attitude and behaviour has a close link with earlier mentioned low academic achievement. Meaning that those who do not do good in school and have a low motivation are most likely going to engage in sexual relationships or criminal activities, than those who have a motivation to study and are doing well in school (Battin-Pearson 2000)
Deviant Affiliation theory
The third theory mainly focuses on the negative influences and relationships, like rejection or abuse in the family as the factors for drop out (Battin-Pearson 2000). This theory is based on Hallinan and Williams (1990) study on student and peer influence. According to the study parents have a huge influence on the childrens behavior, development and even on their academic achievements (Hallinan & Williams 1990). At the same time not only family relationships have an important effect, but also the relationships with friends play a major role. The theory highlights, that even friends that a person have, has a great influence, due shared traits, characteristics and school experiences (IBID, p.130).
Poor Family Socialization theory
Poor Family Socialization theory concentrates on family practices and expectations (Rumberger & Lim 2008). According to Newcomb (1997) family is the earliest and the most important socialization institution for children and their development. Family support and bonding have a significant impact on persons’ general deviance and on psychological distress (Newcomb 1997). Family forms a foundation not just for the academic achievement of the children and how well they do in school, but also make a basis for their future. Rumberger (1983) also argues, that the family background have an important effect on childrens’ school attendance and their tendency to drop out of school. Poverty is one of the main reasons why children feel the pressure to drop out of the school and contribute to the families’ income (Rumberger 1983, p.202). Factors like parent divorce, family stress, parental behavioral control, also acceptance and even the parents’ educational level have a significant effects. Parents’ educational level sets their expectations for their childrens’ school performance (Battin-Pearson 2000, p.571). Rumberger (1983, p.202 & 211) also mentions as the factors for drop out the household conditions, family size, geographic location, marriage and childbirth.
Structural Strains theory
The last theory which is suggested by Battin Pearson (2000) is Structural Strains theory. This theory focuses on demographic factors such as gender, race and ethnicity, and family socio-economic status (Rumberger & Lim 2008). According to Rumberger (1987) most likely to drop out from school are going the boys than girls whom possibly come from a families with low socio-economic status. Boys often drop out more often from school, because boys tend to have a lower commitment to school and a lower motivation to study. They also tend to have worse relationship with their parents and have a higher risk of drug abuse (Battin-Pearson 2000). When it comes to the ethnicity, the theory argues that minorities tend to drop out of school more often (Battin-Pearson 2000). However these dropout reasons can be eliminated when socio-economic factors are controlled through practices and policies (Rumberger 1987).
2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES
While studying the dropout rate of girls in Bayelsa State of south-southern Nigeria, Uche (2013) indicated that the main reason for dropping out of secondary school is poverty. Poverty breeds ignorance and illiteracy which make such individuals vulnerable to sexual predators and peer pressure, to seek for crumbs from men, hence, teenage pregnancy and dropout. He discovered that teenage pregnancy is a factor of school dropout among the girls which was also the opinion of (Antwi-Danso and Edet, 2011; Robin, 2011). He further opined that peer influence and quest for money was identified as major contributors to school dropout as there is always the tendency to make it and look good, hence, no teenager hardly want to be left out as they always want to have that sense of identification. Inokoba and Maliki (2011) pointed quest for money as one of the causes of school dropout and related vices. Uche (2013) further observed that there is high rate of abandonment by parents in the study area especially by fathers. Also, lack of interest in school also showed strong as contributing to school drop. Once the child is abandoned by the father and the mother is poor, the chances of finishing school are slimmer and the tendency is to lose interest in school. It is not surprising because most of these teenagers were born by single teenage mothers. Some of them have never ever met their fathers and hence, the psychological impact is enormous. Also, according to the study of Antwi-Danso and Edet (2011) in the study area, academic performance is a factor of school dropout as most students upon seeing their results for a particular term decides to drop out of school to join their peers in the outside world doing one thing or the other for immediate gain. While studying the causes of dropout in north-central part of Nigeria, Arowolo et al. (2016) indicated that school and family factors are the causes of dropout. He observed that the students have nonchalant attitude towards their academics in which laziness; truancy and hooliganism are the root causes. In the family, most parents are poor to the extent that they cannot pay the school fees of their wards while some seems not to have time for their children, and some parents are no longer monitoring the activities of their children in schools even at home because of pursuit of daily bread and material wealth. The region being the food basket region of the country, Arowolo et al. (2016) noticed high dropout from school during harvest time and absenteeism on market days particularly in the rural areas. Also, domestic work of female demands affects children education. Cultural practices and institutions including early marriage for females, home services, pregnancy, sexual harassment, and employment in domestic market activities significantly contribute to student dropout in the region.