IMPACTS OF GENDER ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES JSS II STUDENTS IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 CONCEPTS OF GENDER

Gender is a cultural construct that distinguishes the roles, behaviour, mental and emotional characteristics between females and males developed by a society. Umoh (2003) defines genderas a psychological term usedis describing behaviours andattributes expected ofindividuals on thebasis of being born as either male or female.

According to Okeke(2003), the studyof gender isnot just mere identificationof male and female sexes. Scholars have gonefurther to identify responsibilities assignedto opposite sexes and to analyzethe conditions under which thoseresponsibilities are assigned.Furthermore, Okeke (2003) specificallynotes that thestudy of gendermeans the analysis of the relationship of men and women including the division of labour, access to resources and other factors which are determined by society as opposed to being determined by sex. It further involves the study of the socio-cultural environment under which responsibilities are assigned and the relationships emanating from it.

Thus, genderequally projects theproperties that distinguishand classify organisms onthe basis of their reproductive and cultural expectant roles. It relates to the cultural and psychological attributes of men and women through their socio-economic contributions, expectations and limitations. Thus the concept of gender does not support or suggest the dominance of male over female or vice versa in academics and other human resource development areas but it stresses equality and equity in enhancing effective and efficient recognition, development and utilization of competencies and endowed capabilities of both sexes.

Gender involvesthe psychological andsocio-cultural dimensions ofbeing male or female. A gender role is aset of expectationsthat prescribes howfemales or malesshould think, act, and feel. The concept of gender-role classification involves a personality-trait-like categorization of a person (Santrock, 2005). However, it is important to think of personality in terms of traits and contexts rather than the personality traits alone. The importance of considering gender in context is nowhere more apparentthan when examining what is culturally prescribed behaviour for females and males in different countries around the world (Gibbons, 2000).

2.1.2 Gender Education

It isgenerally recognized thatone of the majorif not themost important functions ofthe school systemis to produce thepool of skilledmanpower which a nation needsto grow. To this effect countries all over the world depend on their educational systems for the development of their future workforce (Ekeh, 2003). Thus education is an important instrument through which human resources development is achieved without gender discrimination.

Gender education according to Kano (2004) refers to instructional sensitization practices devoid of cultural bias and prejudice and as a process, it employs equity in the specification of subject matter, methodology, strategy and evaluation as regards the students irrespective of their sex. Role expectations are not stereotype but based on the ability of each student. He further ascertain that the major sources of data for planning gender education are thepositive and progressive factors or attributes of the society, the student and the subject matter. The sociological and psychological screening of the society for instance is usually employed in the selection of educational objectives. Therefore those attributes that intervene with positive instructional practices are subdued, ignored, sidetracked, if not entirely eliminated or discarded. Gender education as further stated by Kano (2004) emphasizes the non-recognition of cultural biases and prejudices in the role specification of students in the school. It advocates equity in the provision of learning opportunities, content, strategies and textbook pictorial illustrations. Gender education is free from sex stereotyping, sex inequalities, sex discrimination and sex-role differentiation. It is a pivot through which the curriculum planners and implementers revolvefor maximum success in the school since it endorses a morecomprehensive and challenging gender sensitive curriculum.

Therefore thenation should showconcern and developinterest on howthe two sexes will develop academic competencies which will later be transferred to professional competenciesfor effective andefficiency manpower development in our society.

2.2 CONCEPT OF SOCIAL STUDIES

Social Studies is primarily concerned with the study of people, their activities and relationships, as they interact with one another and with their physical and socio-cultural environment in an effort to meet their needs (to live and to make a living). It is essentially the study of human group experiences (Adekunle, 2006). Social studies is the "integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence," as defined by the National Council for the Social Studies (2000). Social studies is most commonly recognized as the name of a course or set of courses taught in primary and secondary schools or elementary, middle, and high schools, but may also refer to the study of particular aspects of human society at certain post-secondary and tertiary schools around the globe. Wikipedia (2006) however, sees Social Studies as inter/multi-disciplinary in nature and draws its subject matter from a variety of Social Science disciplines - History, Geography, Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Anthropology and Social Psychology.

Emmanuel (2004) sees Social Studies differently. He defined it as the vanguard in the development of positive attitudes and values. These attitudes are difficult to assess but are essential to the development of the student. Thus the Social Studies classroom and the learning experiences provided therein must create the atmosphere in which these can flourish. It is hoped that as a result of personal inquiry and free choice, students will come to believe and act upon the core values (such as) human dignity, honesty, equality, co-operation, self -worth, national pride and self-discipline, and as such develop into responsible citizens (Emmanuel, 2004).

In 2002, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) adopted the following definition of social studies:

Social study is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study draining upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as ivell as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world. (NCSS Task Force on Standards for Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies, 2002, p. 213)

Barth (2003) provided a simpler definition of social studies. According to him, Social studies is the interdisciplinary integration of social science and humanities concepts for the purpose of practicing problem solving and decision making for developing citizenship skills on critical social issues James (2009) is of the opinion that Social studies is the study of people. Social studies help students acquire knowledge, master the processes of learning, and become active citizens.

However, the researcher is of the opinion that Social Studies programmes provide experiences through which students are expected to gain knowledge and insights, develop and practice a variety of skills and attitudes as well as human understanding and social responsibility. Social Studies lessons help students to explain human experiences in the past and present and develop in them the ability to anticipate and prepare for the experiences of the future, to make sense out of the world as they find it and build better worlds than they do find. Above all Social Studies (lessons should) help pupils to feel valued and valuable. Social Studies education has as its goal the preparation of students to make, and act on rational decisions, both as individuals and as group members. These decisions are based on knowledge and on personal values that have been systematically explored and clarified.

Hence social studies do not have a universally accepted definition as different authors and writers defined social studies in varied ways. Lowenstein (1963) define it as a subject which deals with man’s ways of living with his fellow men in the past, the present and the future. In 1916, the Social Studies Committee in America defined social studies as those whose subject matter relates directly to the organization and development of human society and to man as a member of social,historical, geographical and cultural context. Ajiboye (1999) simply puts it as the study of man in his society. Social studies isnot the study of manalone or the study ofthe society exclusively rather it studies man at home, at work, at worship, in politics, at play, in the village,in the nation and everywhere engaged in his busy programme of living (Barth & Dubey, 1998).

With these definitions, social studies could be seen as the study of human behaviour and human institutions which aim at helping the individual understand the culture or society in which he lives. Other authors look at social studies from a different perspective. Akanbi, Adekomiand Adenyaju (1993) saidthat social studies isthe overall subjectof instruction whichstresses human relationships. Adeyoyin (1990) defines social studies to reflect changes and a dynamismwhich has keptit alive as a fieldof study, flexible,dynamic and responsive tochanges in the society. Ogunsanya (1994) says that social studies is an integration of many of the subjects of the social sciences, arts and sciences. He further explained that it is a synthesis rather than a mixture of the relevant component subjects such as economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, history, archaeology, geography, religion, pure and applied science, health education etc. To these authors, social studies draws its knowledge from different disciplines and integrate the knowledge to form its concepts and also aid easy adaptation to societal changes. Falade (2001) summarizes his own definition in one hundred and twenty – six words in order to make the subject more meaningful to all. According to him, social studies has a wider coverage by bringing together the selected and adapted areas of the social science in order to deal with human interaction. Olowo (2002) defines social studies as a problem solving discipline, which studied man and his environment where he interacts in order to have better way of living. In order wordssocial studies provides and suggests reasonable solution to man’s problem in any environment or society he finds himself. In addition to this, social studies provides knowledge and skills for dealingwith humanenvironment in orsociety he findshimself in additionto this, social studies provide knowledge, skills and attitudes that will enable people to understand their physical and human environment in order to act or behave as responsible citizen (Bozimo and Ikwuemmelu, 2000).

Ogundare (2000) explained that social studies is a study of problems of survival in an environment and how to find solution to them. He stressed further that it is a multidisciplinary study of topic, a problem, an issue, a concern or an aspiration. That is it deals with how man can fit into the society byutilizing necessary attitudes,values and skills;implicating on socialscience, history, government and economics. Social studies is not an amalgamation of the social sciences. Rather, it is a subject designed specifically for the study of man and how his problems are solved. According to Ajiboye, Adu and Amosun(2005) social studiesattempts to fosterin young learners a better understanding of man’s interactions with his physical and social environments. This implies that social studies is concerned with how man influences his environment and how the environment, in turn, influences him. Going this assertion, Ajiboye (2003) in his remarks concluded that social studies attempts to study the total realities of man’s existence on earth.

In other words, social studies is the integration of interrelationships of differentsubjects aimed at inculcating national consciousness and national unity, imbibing the right type of values and attitudes for self and national survival, the acquisition of necessary skills, abilities and competences which individuals need to be able to contribute to national development (Chukwu, 2010).

2.3 CONCEPT OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Academic achievement is generally a pedagogical terminology used which determininglearners success in formal education and which is measured through reports examination researches and rating with numerous factors of variable exerting influence (Riaz, Kiran & Maj 2002 p. 68) in educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance or how well a student meets standards set by ministry of education and to the institution itself (Melissa 2012) As carrier competition g-rows ever fiercer in the working world. The importance of student doing well in schools has caught the attention of parent legislators and government education department.

The National Policy on Education (FRN 2004) academic performance refers to how students deal with their studies and how they cope with or accomplish different task s given to them by their teachers. This implies that academic performance is the ability to study and remember facts and being able to communicate your knowledge verbally or down on papers Ugoduluwa (2007 p.72) sees academic performance as the outcome of education. The extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals.Academic achievement is commonly measured by examination--n or continuous assessment but there is no general agreement on how it is best tested or which aspects are most important.

2.3.1 Factors Influencing Academic Achievement

According to Annie (2003) individual difference in academic performance have been linked to difference in intelligent and personality student with higher mental ability as by IQ test (Quick Learner) and those who are high in conscientiousness (linked to effort and achievement motivation) tend to achieve highly in academic settings (Ugodulunwa 2007). A recent meta-analysis suggested that mental curiosity has an important influence on academics in addition to intelligence and consciousness (Piolat et al 2005). These individual difference factor can be coarsely sub divided into intellective (cognitive) and non- intellective (non-cognitive) factors psychology and education have a good grasp on the intellective factors that encompasses more of the variable typically considered in the admissionprocess such a score one cognitively loaded admission test recent meta-analysis evidence has shown that a consideration of those intellective. Factors in valuable given the substantial predictive validation of students prior grades and the ubiquitous-s predictions power of admission test at both secondary and graduate school level across range of authors vandals (Bridgemeni, Mccamicy-Jenkings & Ervnin 2000: Kuncel & Hezlett 2007) and visualmodeling.

Instruction in these skills may over shadow or conflict with instruction in academic content presented in core courses and assessed on high-stakes state tests (Allmam, 2009) little is known about the academic performance of students with disabilities on high-stake state assessments except that accommodation provide the means for students with disabilities to better access the tests. A good match between students learning preference and instructor’s teaching style has been demonstrated to have a positive effort on students’ performance (Harb & EL- Shaarawi 2006) According to Reid (2005) learning preferred refers to a person’s natural habitual and preference way of assimilating new information. This implies that individuals differ in regard to what mode of instruction or study is most effective for them. Scholars who promote the learning preference approach to learning agree that effective instruction can only be undertaken if the learner learning preference are diagnosed and the instruction is tailored accordingly (Pashler, Mc Daniel, Rohrer & Bjork 2008) “I hear and I forget, I see and I remember I do and I understand” (Confucius 551-479BC) a gout that provides evidence that even in early even in early times there was a recognition of the existence of different learning preferences among people. Indeed- Omrodi (2008) reports that some students seem to learn better when information is presented through words (verbal learners) clearly in a class where only one instruction method is employed. There is a strong possibility that a number of students will find the learning environment less optimal and the could alter their academic performance Feldar (2003) established that alignment between students learning preference and an instructor’s teaching style leads to better recall and understanding. The learning preferences approach has gained significant mileage despite the lack of experimental evidence to support the utility of this approach. There are a number of methods used to assess the -learning preferences/styles of students but they typically ask student to evaluate the kind of information.

In 1987 which categories learners into at least four major learning preferences classes Neil Flenming (2011) described these four major learning preferences as follows:

• Visual learners: student who prefer information to be presented on the white board flip charts. Walls graphics, pictures, colour probably creative and may use different colours and diagram in their note books
• -Aural (or oral) auditory learners: prefer to sit back and listen and do not make a lot of notes. Some may find it useful to record lectures for later play backs and reference.
• Read/write learners: prefer to read the information through hand outs and guided readings
• Kinesthetic (or tactile) learners: these learner cannot sit still for long and like to fiddle with thing prefer to be actively involved in their learning and thus would benefitfrom active learning strategies in class

A number of learners and indeed multimodal with more them one preferred style of learning in addition to using different learning style for different component of the same subject. There is a strong possibility that leaning preferences would depend on the subject matter being taught. The question that arises is whether a particular learning preference is favoured in certain subject/course (Kuncel, 2007).

2.4 GENDER STEREOTYPING IN SCHOOLS AND THE SOCIETY

It is obviousthat every cultureholds male superiorto their female counterpart andthis is evident and confirmed even in our society. Traditionally, sex role stereotyping and the differential valuation of male and female roles have been viewed as an integral part of the socialization process and the development of the adult male and female potentials. Males as naturally endowed havepower and prestige thereby having higher and superior status than women (Umoh, 2003). This illustrates the high level of gender stereotype in education and the society at large.

While sex stereotyping limits choices of both male and female, it is particularly constraining for women because few occupations are perceived as being appropriate for women. Besides the fewer job areas available for women might be of low status and income and thus seem discouraging (Umoh, 2003). Okeke (2003) points out that many developing societies have specific roles for different sexes, their varied abilities not withstanding and set roles defined by individual change over time. Gender role stereotyping is further encouraged in text books through pictorial illustrations which are powerful means of communication. Male are often portrayed as doctors, lawyers, engineers, professors while female are portrayed as nurses, cooks, mothers etc. This creates a mental picture in the mind of the reader of the role expectations from the society (Umoh, 2003).

Most timeseven the teacherswho should motivateand encourage the learnersto become allthat he/she iscapable of beingtend to encourage gender stereotype by giving different treatment to males and females in terms of paying or giving more attention to male. Theadverse effect is that the female in the same class or subject may develop low self-esteem and confidence and reduced interest (Okeke, 2003). Thus, those social and cultural practices that prevent the provision ofample learning opportunities to both male and female students should be checked by both teachers and the curriculum planners such that they do not permeate into the school system.

2.4.1Nature and Content of Gender Stereotypes

The current state of discussion in social psychology regards stereotypes in general as inevitable by-products of everyday processes of perception and judgment (Fiske, 2008). They are always generated wherever a group of people forms a distinct social unit (Hamilton & Sherman 2004). They are “…the beliefs, shared by members of one group, about the shared characteristics of another group” (Wright & Taylor 2003). A precondition for the use of stereotypes is that a person is categorized as a member of a certain group. Gender is one of the central social categories relevant to the perception and the assessment of other people, and the individual person as well. In most cases the categorization as male or female is unequivocal. Hence, the expectations surrounding a particular social environment connected to gender play a significant role with respect to the emergence of numerous traits and behavior patterns.

Gender stereotypes can be found with respect to physical characteristics, personality traits, role-related behaviors, occupational preferences, specific competencies, and emotional dispositions (Deaux and Lafrance 1998: 793). Central features of gender stereotypes are e.g. the constructs “agency vs. communion”–characterizing men as independent, assertive, and initiating, and women as caring, emotionally expressive and responsive to others (ibidem: 795). These constructs also have occupational connotations, as people also describe employed workers as “agentic” and homemakers as more “communal,” thus associating certain roles in society with one gender. The same is true for certain kinds of professions: Professions from the field of STEM e.g. engineer, are seen as “agentic,” whilst social professions e.g. social worker or teacher, are seen as “communal” and are strongly connected with the female gender.

Gender also is often correlated with status and power: Males and activities associated with men are considered more valuable and more prestigious than females and activities associated with women. This circumstance also has the con-sequence of differentiated expectations with respect to performance: Men are expected to perform better than women and as a consequence they get more opportunities to show off their achievements and can initiate more actions to do so (ibidem: 2003). Power refers to a person’s actual control over resources and the outcomes of other persons. There are several social levels of analysis where men as a group are associated with having more power than women: society,organizations, marital relationships, and individual traits. These differences in turn lead people to construct identities and demonstrate behaviors that are consistent with such expectations.

2.4.2 Gender Biased Attitudes

The girl child becomes the victim of discrimination and differential treatment right from the time of her birth. The birth of the male child is welcomed with a happy heart whereas that of the girl child is met with depression, especially if she is born after two or three sisters. She is considered as a weakness for the family, she is an economic burden, a moral liability that is defenseless against all types of hazards in life. Discriminatory behaviour ofthe villagers in theallocation of foodresources was observed in majority ofthe cases. Majority of the respondents too admitted that (under normal circumstances) the males are served food before females. As the village is a patrilineal community, the females are expected to surrender their property rights infavour of their brothers. Girls are given dowryand it is assumed that it is equivalent to their share in land. The preference is given to the males in the sphere of health.

The girls aretreated locally whereas the boys may be taken to the doctor, especiallyin the low-income families in whichmore than two daughters are present, the boy's lifeis more important as compared to the girls. The division of labour is based on the classic principle of public and private dichotomy. The work inside the house is supposed to be for the female members of the society, whereas theworkinvolving outside mobilityis the dutyof male membersofthe society. A male is considered the main source of income, which works in the fields or is, employed somewhere else to win bread and butter for the family. Economic activities of the girls are restricted due to purdahlimitation, which confinesthem within thebounds of thehouses. The discrimination isobvious, as themales are stilldominant because thetotal amount thatthe women or girls earn in a month's duration, the males earn it in one or two days’ labour. The girl child is supposed to help in all household chores, which is a full time job. In most of the households shetakes care ofthe siblings andthen doing embroidery,crochet work and stitching to earnmoney or making dowry.On the other handthe boy's responsibility is usually limited to earn money and to bring grocery etc.

The discrimination at the behavioral level is actually steered by the discriminatory beliefs, which were found in the village too. There is a great difference between the people's ideas and beliefs about the girls and boys. The girlsare believed tobe more obedientthan boys, soft natured, submissive and weaker. The boys, on the other hand, are believed to be very naughty aggressive and strict.

The mobility of a girl is restrictedand she isconfined in theprivate domain i.e.the house, while her brothers are given free access to the outside world so that they can acquire skills of their choice. She is made to depend on her parents, brothersor elder relatives forthe fulfillment of her requirements like clothes etc. The girl child is brought up in a constant course of discrimination, which is instilled and reinforced in such a way, that the discriminatory behaviour is internalized and accepted as the cultural norms and values of the society.Mostly the people of the village relate literacy with jobs. Mostly those people are considered educated who can get jobs because of their education. The primary pass females are considered to be well mannered and can take care of their children in a better way. Children are educated through both formal and informal institutions. Among the informal institutions, the family is the crucialfor the child'slearning in accordancewith the socialnorms and values. The young ones try to imitate their parents unconsciously. The girls endeavor to replicatetheirmothers, elder sistersor aunts etc,and boys their fathers,elder brothers or uncles.

A girl is taught to act modestly, with reserve and, self-control. The girl child training is by and large considered to be the responsibility of female elder members like mother, grandmother or the elder sisters of the girl. Right from the start, she is taught to suppress her feelings and desires, therefore turning her into a passive, patient and obedient member of the family. In case ofdisobedience, argument or quarrel over issues like herrights etc., she is chastised and even punished physically by her mother or male members of the family. The boys on the other hand, receive better treatment,privileges and support from the family members. Eventually, they become more authoritative, and dominant, towards their sisters and then towards their wives later on.

It was observed that most of girls andyoung children spendmost of theirtime with their mothers. They have to train their daughters in accordance with the social models and ethics assigned for girls. Because if any girl swerves from them, or commits an improper action, the relatives and elders of the family hold her mother responsible for the daughter's misbehaviour and accuse her of being incapable of socializing her appropriately. The relationship between fathers and daughters in Berom Land is mostly of love, fear and respect. The fathers are very strict about their daughter's “purdah” and segregation from the unrelated men and boys.

2.4.3Socio-Cultural Factorsand Women Education

The tradition, customs, socio cultural values, ethics, motherhood instincts are some of the factors influencing gender bias in the education sector. Cultural and social beliefs, attitudes and practices prevent girls from benefiting from educational opportunities to the same extent as boys. The achievement of girls’ right to education can address some of societies’ deeply rooted inequalities, which condemn millions of girls to a life without quality education – and, therefore, also all too often to a life of missed opportunities. Education is seen in some societies as a fear of change and now with globalization, the fear becomes even greater- fear to lose the cultural identity, fear of moving towards the unknown or unwanted.

At present, the forces which combine to hamper women education, family stability and sustainable development in Nigeria could be viewed broadly to include denial of equitable access to and participation to functional education, early marriage, confinement to solitary living, subjugation by culture to accept choices forced on women, discrimination and harassment at work, political disenfranchisement from elective and political appointment and exposure to cruel mourning rites upon the death of their husband (Oniye, 2010). These cultural barriers and environmental manipulation create inferiority complex in many Nigerian women. Oniye (2010) further ascertained that through the traditional socialization process of our cultural society, women tend to accept negative self-fulfilling prophecy, stereotyping and stigmatization. All these predispositions transmit negatively on the family role and responsibilities, which invariably interplay adversely in the national agenda. Women and development rather than women in development becomes an apparatus for gender issues.

Furthermore, the gender disparity is exacerbated by the powerful economic and social rationale for investing in the education of sons rather than daughters, as daughters are perceived to be less valuable once educated, and less likely to abide by the will of the father, brother or husband. The plight of women, in terms of education is compounded by this negative attitude of parents toward female education (Oniye, 2010). Another implication for poor education opportunity for women is involvement in low paying ventures. It has been noted by Oladunni (1999) that because of societal stereotype and stigmatization on certain professions and subjects as the exclusive preserve of men and or women most Nigerian women have been forced into less paid jobs (teaching, nursing services, agriculture, small scale food processing, secretariat duties, clerical duties, note- counting in banks, cleaners and middle level professional occupations). In most societies, both the public and private sectors continue to be dominated by men, leading parents to ask themselves: why bother educating our girls if they will never make it anyway?

2.5 IMPACTS OF GENDER AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF STUDENTS IN SOCIAL STUDIES

Gender is a major factor that influences career choice and subject interest of students. Further explanation in this context shows that Home Economics, Nursing, Secretary-ship and other feminine related careers have been traditionally regarded as aspects of the school curriculum reserved for females (Umoh, 2003). Based on this, males chose male stereotyped occupations and females chose female stereotyped occupations.

According to Umoh (2003) more difficult tasks are usually reserved for males while less difficult ones are considered feminine in a natural setting. Example of this is breaking of firewood, which isoften seen asmanly task while washingof plates couldbe seen asa female task at home. Thus at school males are more likely to take difficult subject areas and challenging problem-solving situations while female on the other handprefer simple subjects and oftenshy away fromdifficult tasks andproblem-solving situation.

Ekeh (2003) discovered that male secondary school students performed better than females in science and mathematics. These differences in performance can be attributed to gender stereotyping which encourages male and female students to show interest in subjects relevant and related to the roles expected of them in the society. The National Assessment of educational Progress in 1992 showed thatmales had higheraverage scores thangirls between the ages of 9, 13 and 17. Studies have shown that co-education has negative impact oncognitive performance of students as girls perform better without the boys and vice versa (Okon, 2003). She also stated that the association formed between genders as it applies to co-educational institution causes psychological inferiority complex and this hinders effective classroom participation. Furthermore, it is a known factthat attitude developed by youngpeople during theirstudy of science can beas important as the skills they acquire and theknowledge they obtain. This is because attitude regulates behaviour not only in the classroom but in all other areas of human experience. Concluding, Okon (2003) maintains that gender has no significant influence on students’ performance.

Literature on academic achievement is extensive and some findings have shown that females usually score higher on average than males on test of verbal abilities (Halpern, 1996), and that males score higher on average than female on tests of mathematics ability (Halpern, 1996), spatial abilities (Hedge & Nowell, 1995); and on tests of stereotypically male vocational information and aptitude (Hedge&Nowell,1995). These studies were carried out in America among twelve grade students. On the other hand, girls have been found by several studies to be more motivated and higher achievers than boys (Abu-Hilal, in Al- Emadi, 2003).It is against this background that the present research aims to investigate class attendance and gender effects on undergraduate students’ achievement in a social studies course in the University of Botswana.

Research have suggested that on an empirical level, girls perform on reading and writing subjects while boys perform better on the more analytical subject of math and science (U.S Dept.of Education,NAEP,1994).Many authors have expounded on this idea, (Hancock,1996),yet the data on the male–female achievement gap are often inconsistent. In 1998 for example, in a research carried out in America, it was found that young men scored higher on both the verb al and quantitative sections of scholastic achievement test (SAT) than young women(Kirk,2000).In the same vein, some writers have noted that this may be because of a bias against female in our education al system (Myra &Sadker,1994). In support of the above finding, Kirk (2000) gave a further explanation that the tests results reflect a selection bias in which more at risk females opt to take the scholastic achievement test related to males (The College Board, 1991). Rowe (1988) in a study carried out in Victoria High School, Australia, among Year 7 and 8 co-education students found no gender differences in achievement based on thetype of math’s class, but did report increased levels of confidence in learning and using mathematics by girls in about their math’s ability ‘which in turn significantly increased the likelihood of their subsequent participation in senior mainstream mathematics education’ (Rowe,1988,).

The question now is that ,will gender has an effectas well on the academic performance of the undergraduates in Social Studies? In conclusion, the available literatures have shown the importance of academic achievement: if this is true, how do we then identify factors that could influence it among undergraduate students. This therefore, is the purpose of this study.

2.6 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Several related studies have been conducted on women and education both in Nigeria and abroad. Oniye (2010) conducted a study on the relationship between women education, family stability and sustained national development in Ekiti State with a sample of 520 respondents selected through a stratified random sampling technique and questionnaire, all data collected were analyzed with used of frequency. The finding revealed that traditional socialization process of our cultural society, forced women to accept negative self-fulfilling prophecy, stereotyping and stigmatization and cultural barriers and environmental manipulation create inferiority complex in many Nigerian women. He further recommended that; both the policy makers and school administrators need to promote the principle of equality between women and men in school curricula, educational programs and teaching activities. In order to realize the above stated the steps highlighted below are necessary: introduce the issue of gender equality in teachers' training programs; include information and knowledge about the family, gender equality, duties of women and men in the family and shared responsibility of all family members for its proper functioning in sexual education programs.

Alabi, and Alabi (2013) carried out a review of female education: A sociological analysis of girl-child education in Nigeria and found that factors which interplay and affect female education are limitless. Extracurricular and out of school factors play a big role in female education. Long distances from school, sexual harassment by classmates, teachers and males in the community and inefficient use of her time contribute to making attendance in school poor. Finally, the girlchild drops out ofschool when conditions athome, in school,on the wayto school and in the community prevent her from having a meaningful and conducive learning environment. Parents must be made to understand the benefits of education through community based information dissemination techniques. The use of mass medialike televisions and radios whichmost people do not have access to should bereduced and town criers, village based crusades and enlightenment programmes, use of religious centers and market awareness activities carried out and on regular basis.

Agada (2014) conducted a study onparents’ attitude toward female education in Kaura Local Government Area of Kaduna State. He adopted a survey research design and purposive random sampling technique to select 470 respondents. It was found that Family size is a major determinant on attitude of parents and their choice of children by sex for western education. Parents educational status as a significant influence on the choice of children by sex for western education, immorality among female children has a significant influence on parents’ choice of children by sex for western education. Parent economic status has a profound influence on the choice of children by sex for western education. He recommended that Greater encouragement should be given to girls at home to go to schools, with government making free education for girls at all levels of our educational system. Employers too should help by insisting that both men and women have equal chances to employment. Incentive must be given to women by way of employment and promotion opportunities to encourage them learn and take up interesting and challenging careers, which will give them the security and income they need.

Abdulkarim and Mamman (2014) wrote on non-Formal Education and the Girl-Child in Northern Nigeria: Issues and Strategies. They found that 65% of the children in school are boys, while majority of the girls are out of school. They recommended that there should be a collaborative approach with community and religious leaders of the area, if possible they should take the lead in the campaign. Fundingof the literacy centers and supply of adequate learning/instructional materials. Payment of allowances to girls in the literacy centersto cover up for their much establishment of literacy centers across communities in northern part of Nigeria to cater for the out of school girls.

Most of the studies conducted are within the northern region but none of such work has been carried out in of Jos North Local Government Area of Plateau State. This therefore fascinated the researcher to embark on this study to close the gap on the factors militating against female education in the area.

TNS Social research (September 2003-June 2004) stated that parents’ attitudes towards education were generally very positive. The majority (97%) agreed that a good education would help their child to get ahead in life. While 93% thought the qualifications were important to their child’s future, 90% also agreed that children learn important life skills at school. Three quarters of parents (76%) agreed that their child’s school is good at communicating with them and the majority (86%) agreed that their child’s teachers do a great job. Just over a fifth (22%) felt that their child’s school tended to be too interested in bright children at the expense of the others, although only 7% thought that the school takes too much interest in their child’s home life. Just under a fifth of parents/carers (18%) thought that most of the things their child learns at school are not relevant to real life. A small proportion (14%) of parents saw it as acceptable that if their child did not want to study now, s/he could study when s/he was older. Their study was based on to identify whether there were any differences in parents’ attitudes towards attendance between the general population and a group of parents whose children were currently not attending school. This research has not identified any differences in the attitudes of parents in the general population.

Research indicates that most parents show considerable interest in their child’s school, and this is equally the case for parents of children who have attendance problems. In an Ofsted report (2001) on attendance and behaviour in secondary schools, it has been found (O’Keefe, 1993) that most schools usually enjoyed good working relationships with parents. In fact, most of the parents/carers said they wanted more contact with schools. The majority of parents were appreciative of the concern and time given by head teachers and staff, even when approached about issues concerning their children’s attendance or behaviour. However, it was also found that a small proportion of parents/carers were very uncooperative with the schools, and their attitudes, whether confrontational or passive, served to reinforce their children’s negative attitude towards school.

In a study of attitude to school attendance in seven Local Education Authorities (LEAs) in England, it was found that most parents/careers believed that children who did not attend school regularly would under- perform in school work, and that it was necessary for young people to get qualifications. However, the findings also indicated that parents/carers of children who truant tended to hold different attitudes from parents of children who do not have problems with Fewer parents/carers of children with school attendance problems believed that pupils who did not attend regularly would do badly in their schoolwork, and similarly, a smaller proportion of these parents/carers believed that young people needed qualifications. This group was also less likely to think that their children’s safety was at risk if they were not at school, and were less likely to believe that regular school attendance was important. There were also statistically significant differences between the views of both sets of parents with regard to when children should miss school, with a significantly higher proportion of parents of children with attendance problems agreeing that children should miss school to see the doctor, the dentist, or to help out at home.

2.7SUMMARY OF REVIEWED LITERATURE

The factors militating against female's involvement in formal education in most of the researcher as are mostly economic and religious factors. The desire of men to maintain their dominance over women is another factor. Men use religion (Islam) to debar women from western education to continue maintaining their superiority over them. Other reasons advanced of various writers include irrelevant curriculum, men ear of being displaced from their jobs by females, the fear that women if educated would not respect their traditional cultural norms. Early marriage and no assurance of employment after receiving the western education. Meanwhile, the question of women's right throughout the world is no longer a matter of opinion but a right. Hence, women should make up to the realization of their right.