INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT ON STUDENT ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND SELF-ESTEEM: A CASE STUDY OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IKENNE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Environmental Factors Affecting Academic Performance

Environmental factors have previously been overlooked as one of the factors influencing student success in secondary schools, and as a result, they have received little or no attention in educational debate and consideration. However, over the last decade, numerous studies have found a connection between the atmosphere and students' academic success. Everyone's life is influenced by the environment, whether they are students, teachers, employers, or employees. Even so, some people do not accept that a better atmosphere leads to better results. Meghan (2011) in his article "The Environmental Health Problems in Nigeria Schools", Identified some unhealthy practices in our schools. These include sitting of schools, inadequate facilities, poor ventilation etc. Most of our schools have no light, insufficient facilities, sick buildings and no ventilation. Under these conditions the health of students and teachers according to Udoh (1980) may be adversely affected, which will in turn reflect on students performance. Therefore, for the students to carry his learning effectively and efficiently, it is necessary that learning takes place in conducive environment. Hence it is pertinent to critically look at the environmental factors that influences academic performance of student. Studies have shown that environmental factors to a large extent affect both the physical and psychological potentials of an individuals. This has led to the contention that many students fail to develop their potentials due to inadequate environmental stimulation. However, there are some environmental factors which have contributed to this poor performance of students which are natural surrounding,social environment, school environment inadequate school facilities and school climate such as teacher-student relationship etc

Natural Surroundings

Natural environments are more than places where children live, learn, and play. Natural learning environment practices start with looking at the activities children participate in during their everyday life at home and in the community. The natural environment, or what will be referred to as ‘nature’, is an area of any size outdoors that contains parts of the natural world ( Louv, 2008). Students can engage with nature in and out of the classroom using a variety of techniques and methods. Nature-based learning is one of the many ways for students to communicate with nature, but it seems to be the most straightforward. It entails bringing students to a natural setting during class time, a practice known as "learning in nature." Natural-based learning has often been seen as a reward or a way of learning about nature in my own experience as a student (Ernest 2012). There, students are able to touch tree bark, feel the cool of the woods on their skin, smell the pine trees, and listen to the birds sing. Learning in the natural surrounding can take many forms. One example of a nature-based lesson could be having the class read a book while lying on a patch of grass. As mentioned before the book itself does not need to be about nature, but students would feel the warmth of the sun, the touch of the grass, the chill of a breeze, the smell of freshly cut grass, the sounds of the wind blowing as they were reading. A different example of learning in natural surrounding would be teaching the class about environmental stewardship by having the class engage in a real-world activity in a park (Richard L. 2008).

Learning in the natural environment affords direct benefits as diverse as educational, health and psychological and indirect benefits ranging from social to financial. Yet, despite increasingly robust evidence of these benefits, many children are losing their connection with nature. Worse still, children in urban environments are particularly disadvantaged1. For example, nowadays 10% of children play in the natural environment compared to 40% of adults when they were young (Ernest 20212). This ‘extinction of experience’ has a detrimental long-term impact on environmental attitudes and behaviours. A cultural shift is required, both at home and at school, before the situation can be reversed. Such a cultural shift requires commitment from concerned parties and stake-holders; substantial advocacy; a long-term strategy, and an irrefutable and compelling evidence base. Other scholars have been advocating for the importance of nature-based learning in different ways. Howard Gardner (2011) of Harvard University developed a theory of the multiple intelligence that identifies the eight intelligences he believes to be central to learning:logical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal and naturalist (Gardner, 2011). In Gardner's own words, the eighth intelligence is "the ability to make consequential distinctions among organisms and entities in the natural world" (Gardner, 2011).

In a study conducted by the California Department of Education (American Institutes for Research, 2005), a program was studied which experimented with an outdoor science school. The benefits of this type of NBL included increased academic performance, such as a 27% increase in the mastery of science concepts. These benefits were not limited to academic achievement, but were found in other skills as well, such as better cooperation and conflict resolution, gains in self esteem, problem solving, learning motivation and classroom behaviour. Educators in this program mentioned how the gains could be attributed to the "fresh start" opportunity the program allowed for the students. Similarly, Louv (2005) describes how students in nature-based programs have better attendance records and behaviour than their counterparts in regular classrooms. One effect of learning in natural environment as described by Louise C. (1990) is how contact with nature enhances creativity. Through her research, Chawla found that the creativity of adults is well developed when exposed to natural settings as a child. Her research consisted of a survey conducted with adults which showed that the people who had jobs that required little creativity reported less influence of nature in their childhood.

Social Environment

The social learning environment is an important component of learning theory that cannot be categorized separately from learning philosophy. Within the concept of explaining the learning environment, it is a significant topic of interest. Physical surroundings, social relationships, psychological factors, and cultural contexts all affect students' function, engagement, and success, according to Casper and Barnett (2001). However, Jordan et al. (2008) emphasise that the social environment is classified as a personal process that includes multiple factors such as social setting and relationships with their colleagues. Thus the following factors make up the social environment:

Place identity

‘Place identity’ refers to a concept that is based on environmental psychology, which enhances the student’s performance by establishing a meaning and significance of place for the student – a ‘sense of place’. Personalizing the student’s conceptualization of the environment can be achieved through a range of physical elements and techniques that supports them in understanding their surroundings, and then satisfies their needs (Hirschy and Wilson, 2002). Establishing effective place identity provides a sense of ownership, attachment and familiarity for the students and teachers. These factors can facilitate developing a sense of security, confidence and productivity when faced with a challenge. The location of the school and its surroundings affects the student’s senses, which develops a familiarity with their community. Additionally, it is important to enhance the opportunities to connect the school with nearby places like museums, libraries and parks (Trancik and Evans, 1995). Allowing students to personalize the environment in their own way can enhance the theory of place-identity and introduce them to other views of the social environment which affect their behaviour.

The family

Research conducted for Latin American students showed that family factors have a positive correlation with student achievement and success, and identified that family support is a significant issue for students’ academic motivation and attainment (Marschall, 2006). Parents need to be welcomed in school and have an active role in school activities, perhaps by paying more attention to the education of the student to engage them in school activities, depending on their skills, knowledge and expertise. Additionally, schools need to offer guidance for parents in order to help their children’s homework and improve their desire for education (Jordan et al. , 2008). Supporting the learner’s experiences by their families has a critical role in creating the ideal social environment, where appropriate communication between families and school or educational authorities takes place.

Peer groups and friends

The interaction between learners and their peers and friends within the school is vital. Students who socialize with their classmates remain safer from bullying and the dropout rate decreases. They maintain better progress in the school and achieve deeper understanding of their own learning (Lubell and Vetter, 2006). The study conducted by Gonzalez and Padilla (1997) found that peer group communication in learning, along with family support, were the most important issues affecting students for greater learning progress. Thus, educators and family need to pay more attention to students who do not socialize or engage themselves well with group activity, to encourage them to participate in variety of groups in terms of gender, interests and ability, as well as enhancing their cohesion and self-confidence (Jordan et al. , 2008).

The community

The community, including the families and friends that each person belongs to, plays a significant role in enhancing social cohesion and learning quality (Patrick and Ryan, 2003). Each factor of social learning affects the creation of a community which can support learning by sharing and providing knowledge and experiences (Conaty, 2002). The educators and learning-environment designers must consider this when designing effective learning circumstances, by building appropriate connections between the community members and their goals and desires. The learners’ culture, history, tradition and rituals can thus be integrated with their learning procedures, which will gives a sense of belonging in their community (Davis, 2000). In addition, encouraging the communities to debate and examine their ideas and engage in collective learning activities in school and in other learning spaces has been widely noted in the social environment literature (Davis, 2000).

Physical Environment

Physical environment does not have an absolute definition. Physical environment can mean a number of things, such as a sense of place in time and space, as in Tuan (1979), a single factor like air quality, or a few similar basic factors. When addressing the physical school or classroom environment, it has to be defined in each case, as Gardner (2011), points out the the physical environment factor concerns the quality of the space and organization, which can be classified as interior design and architectural considerations, while other aspects focus on crucial concerns that affect the quality of physical environment. Emerging from these factors leads to the phrase ‘effective physical learning environment’, which is discussed from several perspectives that identify the significant effects of the learning environments. Educators, psychologists and architects and designers stress that the classroom environment has a power to facilitate and enhance the learning process. Gardner (2011) stated that “researchers confirm that the design of physical environments will affect children’s perception, learning and behaviours. As expert who found that early development of motivation, cognition, and social skills can be supported by the design of children’s play spaces. Allen and Hessick (2011) referred to the physical environment in the classroom as the ‘silent curriculum’, an essential factor leading to the optimal education and learning experience. Students are influenced by their classroom environment even if they do not understand the implication of the environmental settings on learning. The following aspects shown in Figure below are the physical factors relevant here

Spatial environment

The spatial formation of the classroom is important; linking the spatial environment factors with the quality of learning and outcomes is crucial and much literature discusses this in depth (Newton et al. , 2009). These spatial factors are divided into three elements as follows:

Function of the space: The spatial organisation setting enables functions and purpose to be taken into account to use the space properly (Bonus and Riordan, 1998). In order to help students internalize learning with the pedagogical system or other philosophical approach, the purpose of the classroom and learning environment must be specified and understood well by the teachers and all school users (Taylor and Enggass, 2009).

Seating arrangements: Providing flexible seating arrangements enables a diversity of learning activities to take place. Teachers can org anise the furniture in rows, cooperative groups or clusters, depending on their teaching strategy and the particular function of the space that is required.

Density: The human psychological behavioural reaction to crowding is also important. It has been suggested that a low-density environment encourages more participation and positive attitudes, as well as creating a sense of friendship and greater academic achievement (Newton et al. , 2009).

Visual Environment

The psychological studies show that there are positive relationships between the visual elements and the students’ behaviour, which improves the quality of the teaching and learning environment (Lippman, 2010b). Three main elements are important in the visual environment:

Lighting: Studies show that appropriate lighting enhances academic achievement and reduces negative aspects of off-task behaviour, while incandescent lighting is more appropriate in learning environments due to its positive impact on students (Sleeman and Rockwell, 1981).

Colour: This can influence students’ mood, judgment and behaviour. Each colour has different behavioural implications and psychological effects, so designers are advised to use cold or warm colour palettes in a learning environment, depending on the activities that will take place in them (Allen and Hessick, 2011).

Personal displays: Exhibiting the students’ works in the learning environment is an important feature that can impact on students’ behaviour and sense of belonging, which has been stated as a crucial element in the physical environment (Pearlman, 2010).

Acoustic Environment

Acoustic quality in a classroom improves the ability of students’ learning. The teacher’s voice, for example, has to be audible to all students in the classroom (Klatte et al. , 2010b). External noises that affect the classroom like airplanes and road traffic must also be kept to a minimum (Bronzaft and McCarthy, 1975). Internal noises like students’ movements and voices are also a significant concern for the designer (Promethean Education Strategy Group, 2014). Research shows that the reading achievement grades for schools that are located in quiet areas were considerable higher than achieved by students in noisy schools (Earthman, 2002a).

Thermal environment

The thermal quality has an impact on learning; the temperature in learning spaces affects students’ behaviour and achievement (Harmon, 1953). Each student has different expectations of an ideal thermal environment. High temperatures as well as low ones in classrooms can decrease students’ achievement of class tasks (Shield and Dockrell, 2004). The ideal temperature depends on the climate condition in each country, and student’s preferences Theory of learning Environment 66 which also vary; therefore, students and teachers need to be able to control the classroom temperature during class time (Teli et al. , 2012).

School Environment

School environment refers to the set of relationships that occur among members of a school community that are determined by structural, personal, and functional factors of the educational institution, which provide distinctiveness to schools. The school environment is an important factor when evaluating student well-being. The study of the physical, social, and academic (curricular) conditions of the environment and the administrative organization of schools have been related to school environments and the well-being of students (Corral-Verdugo et al., 2015). Nowadays, it has become more common to find empirical studies that identify the impact of school environments on student well-being. For example, safe school environments and student well-being have been found to be significantly and strongly interrelated variables on research of various kinds of students’ needs (Kutsyuruba et al., 2015). The school environment is the totality of the learning environment both physical, social, and natural environment. It includes both classroom, libraries and school yard.

• Classroom

Space for the delivery of materials that correspond to the areas of basic knowledge where students and teachers interact with furniture that enables individual or group work. Recently it has been mentioned that specific characteristics of the classroom’s physical environment are related to student satisfaction, attitudes, and evaluation of the quality of the course .

• School yard

Spaces in which students perform educational, civic, recreational, and food-related activities. In a recent study, Dilbil and Basaran (2017) argue that playgrounds positively affected cognitive development and levels of attachment of children to school.

• Libraries

Space that is well-conditioned to read, learn, and consult a bibliographic collection belonging to the school community where students can interact and work. Schultz-Jones (2011) conducted a study to explain how an evaluation of the learning environment of the school library can be used to demonstrate a positive impact on student performance.

Influence Of Environment On Learning And Performance

Children need safe, healthy and stimulating environment in which to grow and learn. During the school year, children can spend 6 to 8 hours at the school where the environment plays a significant/critical role in child development. More of the time is spent in the school yard or travelling to and from school. This condition requires careful planning and designing to optimize experiences that support education, health and stewardship.Therefore, the school environment is of paramount importance in shaping and reshaping intellectual ability. However, supportive and favorable school environment enriched with enough learning facilities, and favorable climate makes students more comfortable, more concentrated on their academic activities that resulted in high academic performance. The forces of the environment begin to influence growth and development of the individual right from the womb of his mother. The educational process of development occurs in physical, social, cultural and psychological environment. A proper and adequate environment is very much necessary for a fruitful learning of the child. The favorable school environment provides the necessary stimulus for learning experiences. The children spend most of their time in school, and this school environment is exerting influence on performance through curricular, teaching technique and Relationship. Tinto (2007) maintained that students require academic, social, and personal support from their school. As supported by Astin‟s (2004) theory of involvement suggests that students learn more when they are more involved in both the academic and social aspects of the school experience. Consequently, learning has important social and cognitive dimensions and occurs most effectively when the school provides a positive social environment with a strong sense of community. However, a student‟s educational outcome and academic success isgreatly influenced by the type of school that they attend. School factors include school structure, school composition, and school climate. The school one attends is the learning environment that sets the parameters of a students learning experience. Depending on the environment, a school can either open or close doers that lead to academic achievement. Crosnoe, Johnson and Elder (2004) suggested that school sector (public or private) and class size are two important structural components of school. Private schools tend to have both better funding and smaller class size than public schools. The additional funding of private schools leads to better academic performance and more access to resources such as computers, which has been shown to enhance academicachievement.

Smaller class sizes: create more intimate settings and therefore can increase teacher-students bonding which has been shown to have a positive great effect on student‟s academic performance and can lead to attainment of educational objectives. Crosnoe et al (2004) and Krafter (2004) revealed that class size above 40 have negative effect on students‟ academic performance in school. Fafunwa (2010) postulated that there is a big gap in quality, resulting from large number of students in a crowded classroom, using inadequate and obsolete equipment and with disillusion teachers. Researchers such as Devis and Mayuri (2003), Egim (2003) and Obong (2007) revealed that quality of learning facilities available within the learning environment has positive relationship with the quality of teaching and learning activities which in turn influence students‟ academicperformance.

The relative social class of a student also affects his/her academic achievement. Students from low socio-economic backgrounds who attend poorly funded schools most a times do no perform as well as students from higher social classes (Eamon, 2005). Students‟ motivation for learning is also regard as one of the most critical determinants, which contribute to the success and quality of any learning outcome (Mitchell, 2002). School composition or the general make up of a school is another important factor regarding academic achievement (Crosnoe et al, 2004; Bali and Alverez 2004; & Eamon 2005). The skill level of teachers is another indicator of student performance. Students who attend schools with ahigh number of well qualified and committed teachers perform better (Bali & Alverez, 2004).

Light: has been identified as another important element thatincreases students‟ motivation to learn and it has direct influence on students‟performance (Samani, 2011). Today‟s school correct use of lighting includes daylight that promotes energy-saver and amenity as well as artificial interior lighting. The visual environment affects a learner‟s skill to observe visual stimuli and affects his or her mental manner, and then, performance. The fact is if students have motivation in their schools interior environment, they would be more academically successful (Fielding,2010).

According to Pulay (2010) the positive effect of lighting on students learning performance occurs if it designed correctly. He further explained that a well-hit classroom includes galore control, balanced brightness, higher reflectance ratings, and accent on the focal wall. Students must read many different surfaces, like papers or computer monitors. Dunn (2005) persisted that the highly in schools environment must be considered as a very vital and dynamic element of the educational environment. Many elements have direct effect on students‟ performance from physical learning places of environment, but the influence of light is much more than otherelements.

Ability of students to ponder and concentrate on instructions in schools depends on many factors and light is one of these factors that strongly influence student‟s academic performance. Another important determinant, which shouldn‟t be neglected, is the family. Family is the primary social system for children of all cultures across the country in particular and Africa in general Jago and Tanner (2009). Rollins and Thomas (2009) asserted that high parental controls are associated with high achievement of academic activities. Religiosity as an aspect of the family environment is another independent variable possibly for influencing academic achievement (Wang, 2003). Cassidy and Lynn (2001) explored how family environment impacts motivation and achievement. This means that motivation serves as a mediating variable between home background, personal characteristics and academic achievement.

It is obvious that recent increase in population and quest for knowledge constituted problem in our secondary schools today, because Yusuf (2004) observed in a study conducted on effect of co-operative and competitive instructional strategies on performance of students that the poor performance of students is due to overcrowded classrooms. This problem is caused by increase in enrolment without increase in the provision of facilities, instructional and supportive personnel. Williams (2008) maintains safe and orderly classroom environment (aspect of instructional space), school facilities (accessories) are significantly related to students‟ academic performance in school. Glassman (2004) asserted that a comfortable and caring learning environment among other treatments help to contribute to students‟ academicperformance. Ducason and Achilles (2008) described teachers and the physical environment (plant space) are the two major tools that can bring about new outcomes in teaching and learning process. Rutter, Dukor & Fair (2009); Scheerens and Creemers (2009); Adewuyi (2002) submitted in their various studies that conducive learning environment can have positive effect on both attitudes and achievements of students.

Positive learning environment is found to be very important factor of school effectiveness. Glen (2006) however, revealed that physical facilities like buildings can exert great influence on the academic performance of students either positively or negatively by how the built environment either permits them to function or inhibits the process of teaching and learning.

Conducive learning environment:

has been identified as essential for effective teaching and learning to take place. Olutola (2008) postulated that school learning environment which includes instructional spaces, administrative spaces, circulation spaces, spaces for conveniences and accessories are essential in facilitating teaching-learning process.Over the last decade, research studies from a range of historically somewhat fields (e.g., risk prevention, health promotion, character education, marital health, and social-emotional learning) have identified research-based school improvement guidelines that predictably create safe, caring, responsive and participatory schools (Sanoff, 2009).

In the opinions of Cohen (2006) learning environment is the quality and character of school life. It is based on patterns of school life experiences and reflects norms, goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching, learning and leadership practices, and organizational structures. A sustainable, positive school environment fosters youth development and learning necessary for a productive, contributing and satisfying life in a democratic society. This climate includes norms, values, and expectations that support people‟s feelings socially, emotionally and physically safe.

Secondary school is a formal organization where teachers and learners activities are planned, organized and controlled both internally and externally. It is a formal learning environment which is influenced internally and from outside physically. (Rohana, 2009).

According to Esan, Obashoro and Osondu (2008) the school as a learning environment comprises physical, academic, social and cultural environments. The physical environment is made up of school location, physical features and structures within and outside the school. For example a school may be located in urban or rural areas, noisy or quiet areas. Buildings, equipment and infrastructures available within a school and its surroundings also constitute its physical environment.

Learning environment is reflected by curricular and co-curricular activities in which teachers and learners engage in classrooms, libraries, laboratories and other places in the school. Social environment is created through interaction among teachers and learners in classrooms and other places in the school. The cultural environment consists of rules, regulations, values and discipline. It also includes all school activities which are meant to initiate learners into societal culture and the dominant among these features is the physical environment as described by mark (2007) and Ajayi (2007) that school physical features consists of the basic systems and structures which are viable and are needed by schools or institutions in order to function effectively and to fulfil the purpose for which it was established.

Physical learning environment if adequately provided and maintained its‟ capable of influencing students and teachers positively as suggested by Olagboye (2004) physical learning environment reflects the political, social, economic and intellectual activities of given school. He referred to them as physical resources, school plant or school facilities. Bosque and Dore (2008) teaching and learning environment out to implement six functions: inform, communicate, collaborate, produce, scaffold, and manage. They added that conceptually speaking, the learning environment refers to the whole range of components and activities which learninghappens.

OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2009) described learning environment as a physical space that supports multiple and diverse teaching and learning programmes and pedagogies, including current technologies; one that demonstrates optimal, cost effective building performance and operation over time; one that respects and is in harmony with the environment and stimulating setting for its occupants.

Learning environment in its narrow sense is a conventional classroom and in its widest sense, is a combination of formal and informal education system where learning takes place both inside and outside the school for the purpose of achieving the set objectives (Manninen, 2007). The concept of physical learning environment with respect to physical structures relates to spaces, equipment and tools within the school (James, 1997). Dikko (2008) suggests that learning environment is a complex structure that includes teaching equipment, sources of information and events within and outside the schools where students can take part in the learning process both directly andvirtually. Looking at the learning environment is about more than the structures, it is about the social relationship within the space. Elis (2005) asserted that space can be conceptualized as being an interaction between physical and social space. Also the concept of learning environment has been viewed by Sariola (2011) as an environment for the teachers and students activities within which learning is seen as an active process in a multi-information and co-operational network environment.

Moreover, technology is often considered valuable for increasing educational benefit and instructional quality (Dexter, Anderson, & Becker, 2009). Mobile devices, wireless communications, and network technology have recently advanced significantly, and have been integrated into various wireless learning environments that attract many individuals‟ attention and expectations (Rochelle & Pea, 2002); Norris & Soloway, 2004). For instance, many studies have been predicted that wireless learning environments have the potential to create something new and significant impact on education (Roblyer, 2003; Rochelle, 2003; Penual, Tatar, & Rochelle, 2004).

Wireless learning environments:

offer many educational possibilities that are not easily achieved in other learning environments. Mobile devices enable both the teachers and students to employ computing power without time or location constraints while the internet and wireless technologies enable mobile devices to interconnect seamlessly with each other or with other computing devices. Wireless learning environments have the following features basedon seamlessly linking various computing power with mobile learning devices at hand which include, enhancing availability and accessibility information networks; engaging students in learning related activities in diverse physical locations; supporting group work in projects; improving communication and collaborative learning in the classroom; and supporting quick content delivery (Liang, 2005; Zurita, Nussbaum & Salinas, 2005). Therefore, wireless learning environments are regarded as more suitable than ordinary classroom or computer classroom for supporting teaching and learning based on learner-centred teaching methods which Rochelle (2003) and Zurita et al (2005) described as active, productive, creative, and collaborative learningmethods. Environment of an organization has all elements relevant for its operations and they include direct and indirect action elements. School facilities constitute the major components of both direct and indirect elements in the environment of learning. Learning environment is a controlled environment that facilitates the teaching and learning process through the various elements that exist within it and as well protect the well-being of its occupants (Hawkridge, 2006). Fenker (2004), Bob (2012) and Creemers (2004) all posited that a safe and orderly environment is the one that is free from threat of personal harm and conducive to teaching and learning.

Academic Performance

Academic performance really means three things; the ability to study and remember facts, being able to study effectively and see how facts fit together and form larger patterns of knowledge and being able to think for yourself in relation to facts and thirdly, to be able to communicate (Coulson, 2008). According to Pruett (2010) is the level of achievement attain via the combination of inputs from student motivation and conduct. In views of Adediwura and Tayo (2007) academic performance is generally referred to how well a student is accomplishing his or her tasks and studies, but there are quite a number of factors that determine the level and quality of students‟ academic performance. This no doubt supports the view of Nicholas (2004) that the most current information on improving academic performance shows that there are three environmental influences linked to levels of academic performance among schoolstudents.

These influences according to the information includes high quality parenting (the degree to which a young star is provided with an enriched, warm and responsive learning environment which includes appropriate control and discipline over children, and are closely associated with both higher grade reading and mathematics skills); high quality child-care environments (stimulating activity and nurturing as reflected in high quality parenting) and high quality first- grade classrooms (with a focus on literacy instruction, evaluative feedback, instructional conversation, and encouraging child responsibilities). Academic Performance Index (2010) revealed that academic performance is how students deal with their studies and responsibilities given to them by their teachers. Louis (2012) academic performance is the ability of students to obtain high grades and standard test scores in school courses, especially courses that are part of the core academiccurriculum.

How To Evaluate AcademicPerformance

Students are motivated to learn when they receive feedback on their work. When students know that their learning will be measured and that their successes and accomplishments will be acknowledged, they are more motivated to study more seriously. According to Elsevier (2010), assessment is more concerned with determining the merit or worth of a learning process as well as the success with which it is carried out. He claims that two specific areas are normally assessed. The first is a student's accomplishment in relation to the theory and goals of the education he or she is pursuing.The second is how well the curriculum goals are been realized for the level of education.

Evaluation is the systematic process of determining the extent to which instructional objectives are achieved by students. Consequently, examination results and teacher‟s judgment are used to categorize or classify students. Irreversibly decisions are made regarding the students‟ worth and his future in the educational system. By this system of categorizing students, some are made to feel that they are deficient, bad and undesirable, while others feel that they are able, good and desirable. This labelling of individuals may likely have some unfavourable influence on a persons‟ self- concept. Yusuf (2012) described evaluation as the collection and use of information as a basis for rational decision making on the curriculum which need to be improved, modified or terminated as the case may be. It is a quality control exercise to ensure that resources are used maximally. It is true that the process will yield information regarding the worthiness, appropriateness, validity, etc of something for which a reliable measurement or assessment has beenmade.

However, various assessment or measurement tools and techniques may be used in evaluating teaching-learning process as well as the outcomes associated with it. Yusuf (2012) has identified instruments to be used in evaluating teaching learning process as test, observation, project,questionnaire, interview, checklist and sociometric technique or sociometry.

Alabi (2011) asserted that test is an important aspect of the educational process. It is the stage atwhichthelearners‟knowledge,skill,abilityandcompetenciesareassessed,and judgement is made about such performance. The outcomes of such judgement are used in diagnosing as well as placement ofstudents. Assessment of a person‟s performance when confronted with a series of questions, problems, or tasks set for him in order to ascertain the amount of knowledge that he has acquired, the extent to which he is able to utilize it, or the quality and effectiveness of the skills he has developed. Scott (2001) stated that measuring academic performance can occur at multiple levels and serves multiple purposes. For example, classroom teachers often conduct formative and summative tests to evaluate students‟ mastery of course content and provide grades for students and parents. States tests are designed primarily to measure progress of the school and school district level.

Standardized observational assessment can guide teachers and administrators in promoting effective teaching and learning, enhance students social and academic development as well as assessing their level of academic outcomes (Megan, 2011). Centre for American Progress (CAP) (2012) advanced that students‟ performance can be measured through administrating achievement test, analysing stated testing results, use informal surveys to measure academic achievement and look at grade reports.

Concept Of Self Esteem

Self-esteem has become a household word. Teachers, parents, therapists, and others have focused efforts on boosting self-esteem, on the assumption that high self-esteem will cause many positive outcomes and benefits—an assumption that is critically evaluated in this review. Appraisal of the effects of self-esteem is complicated by several factors. Because many people with high self-esteem exaggerate their successes and good traits, we emphasize objective measures of outcomes. High self-esteem is also a heterogeneous category, encompassing people who frankly accept their good qualities along with narcissistic, defensive, and conceited individuals. The modest correlations between self-esteem and school performance do not indicate that high self-esteem leads to good performance. Instead, high self-esteem is partly the result of good school performance. Efforts to boost the self-esteem of pupils have not been shown to improve academic performance and may sometimes be counterproductive. Job performance in adults is sometimes related to self-esteem, although the correlations vary widely, and the direction of causality has not been established. Occupational success may boost self-esteem rather than the reverse. Alternatively, self-esteem may be helpful only in some job contexts. Laboratory studies have generally failed to find that self-esteem causes good task performance, with the important exception that high self-esteem facilitates persistence after failure. People high in self-esteem claim to be more likable and attractive, to have better relationships, and to make better impressions on others than people with low self-esteem, but objective measures disconfirm most of these beliefs. Narcissists are charming at first but tend to alienate others eventually. Self-esteem has not been shown to predict the quality or duration of relationships. High self-esteem makes people more willing to speak up in groups and to criticize the group's approach. High self-esteem does not prevent children from smoking, drinking, taking drugs, or engaging in early sex. If anything, high self-esteem fosters experimentation, which may increase early sexual activity or drinking, but in general effects of self-esteem are negligible. One important exception is that high self-esteem reduces the chances of bulimia in females. Overall, the benefits of high self-esteem fall into two categories: enhanced initiative and pleasant feelings. We have not found evidence that boosting self-esteem (by therapeutic interventions or school programs) causes benefits. Our findings do not support continued widespread efforts to boost self-esteem in the hope that it will by itself foster improved outcomes.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Motivation Theory

Motivation is a theoretical concept utilized to clarify human behaviour. The motivation provides the motive for the human beings to react and fulfil their needs. Motivation can also be defined as one's route lead to behaviour, or to the construct that trigger someone to desire to replicate behaviour and vice – versa , (A.H. Maslow 1943). Motivation is defined as the process to make a start, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. Basically, it leads individuals to take action to achieve a goal or to fulfil a need or expectation. Motivation can be categorized as intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and a motivation (J. Mitchell, M. Gagné,2012).

Intrinsic And Extrinsic Motivation Theory

Intrinsic motivation, according to M. Ryan and E. Deci (2000), is described as an operation performed solely for the satisfaction of oneself, with no external expectations. The main factors that elicit intrinsic motivation are challenge, interest, power, and fantasy. In order to stay motivated in school, you'll need a lot of willpower and a positive attitude. Furthermore, according to Pérez-López & Contero (2013), intrinsic motivation and academic achievement have a strong and optimistic relationship. Intrinsic motivation directs an individual to participate in academic activities only to experience the fun, challenging and uniqueness without any external pressure or compulsion rather than expecting external rewards, gifts or under any compulsion or pressure. Attitude in learning is considered prominent and it influences the academic achievement. Intrinsic motivation is able to spread the positivity and make the gained knowledge to sustain for a long time.

Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, refers to external factors such as a reward, coercion, or punishment. Jabbari & Tohidi (2012). If a person is receiving a reward or is under some pressure or compulsion, they are extrinsically motivated. Tohidi & Jabbari (2012) claim that motivation can be cultivated extrinsically at first, then transformed into intrinsic motivation as the learning process progresses. This kind of motivation provides a high level of will power and engagement yet it would not able to sustain longer than the intrinsic motivation can do. If they are continuously motivated through the use of external rewards or compliments, it could be habitual for students to perform only to gain the rewards and not for own sake or to mastery skills or knowledge. Other than that, when an individual is not able to perform either intrinsically motivate or extrinsically motivate, then a motivation occurs. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is needed in a learning process. Learning is a complicated process and motivation is the hard rock of this process. Hence, students have to be highly motivated to face the challenges, understand the process and able to apply in real circumstances. Intrinsic motivation leads to self-motivation in pursuing the learning meanwhile extrinsic motivation gives the purpose to pursue the learning.

Hierarchy Of Needs Theory

MMaslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a well-known motivation theory that is often used in educational settings. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a psychological theory that explains human motivation in the fulfillment of various levels of needs. Humans are driven to meet their needs in a hierarchical order, according to the theory. Abraham Maslow first proposed Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation.". Maslow also studied the healthiest and highest achieving 1% of the college student population.As a result he developed the hierarchy of needs as an attempt to describe what people need in order to achieve a level of fulfillment from their lives or what Maslow describes as ‘self-actualization. Abraham Maslow proposed that before students can reach their full potential, they must first fulfill a set of needs. It's worth noting that Maslow's theory was founded on ideology rather than empirical facts.Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, on the other hand, should serve as a reminder to teachers that if our students' basic needs are not met, they are less likely to achieve their full potential. This list starts with the most basic needs and progresses to more advanced requirements. According to this theory, the ultimate aim is to achieve the fifth level of the hierarchy: self-actualization.

The Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior. In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:

1. Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.
2. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

Children experience people in their environment behaving in a variety of ways. This is shown in the well-known Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961). Models are people who have been studied. Children are surrounded by many prominent models in culture, such as their parents, characters on children's television, peers from their peer group, and teachers at school. These models show you how to analyze and mimic different types of behaviour, such as masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social, and so on.Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a later time they may imitate (i.e. copy) the behavior they have observed.They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that its society deems appropriate for its gender. First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the same gender.

Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior. If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been reinforced (i.e., strengthened).External or internal reinforcement may be positive or negative. If a child seeks approval from parents or peers, this approval is external, but feeling good about being accepted is internal. Since it craves acceptance, a child will act in a way that it thinks will earn it.

If the reinforcement presented externally does not meet an individual's needs, positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little effect.

Reinforcement may be positive or negative, but the main point is that it typically results in a shift in actions.Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the consequences of another person’s (i.e., models) behavior, e.g., a younger sister observing an older sister being rewarded for a particular behavior is more likely to repeat that behavior herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or people in the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess.