INVESTIGATING THE CAUSES, EFFECTS AND SOLUTION STRATEGIES OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCES AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

 Conceptual Framework

 Theoretical Framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Antisocial behaviors comprises of such behaviors that go against the social norms in a community (Burt & Donnellan, 2009). These behaviors can be categorized in two broad spectrums, namely: overt and covert behaviors (Burt & Donnellan, 2009; Willoughby, Kupersmidt, & Bryant, 2001). According to Willoughby et al. (2001), overt antisocial behavior is offensive behavior that is not concealed, while covert antisocial behavior is unseen and non-confrontational. Hallahan (2006) opines that antisocial behavior may be overt, involving aggressive actions against parents, siblings, teachers, peers, or other adults (e.g., bullying and hitting, verbal abuse) or covert, involving aggressive actions against property (e.g., theft, vandalism, fire-setting, disobedience, temper tantrums, stealing, and violence). Antisocial behavior is apparent when an individual finds it very complicated to adhere to the standards and norms of his/her social environment at home or school. Kayne (2012) conceives that anti-social behavior can commonly be described as an overall lack of obedience to the societal standards or norms that allow individuals to live together peacefully. Many individuals who exhibit such behaviors may look pleasant, but often cause hurt to others and feel little regret due to their activities. A number of environmental factors are the main reasons that contribute towards the development of unsociable behaviors including parents, peers, and school which influence the wholesome development of a child, in terms of physical, affective, social, and spiritual (Patterson, 1992). The period of early adolescence keeps very importance both for the extensive and intensive transitions that may influence individuals’ emotionally, psychologically, physically, or socially. During such period, teenagers are more vulnerable regarding their emotional problems. Therefore, in such scenario, they try to seek comfort and emotional assistance from their parents, family, or peers. So, parents, family, and peers attachment perform a significant role in childhood and adolescence periods particularly during the years of early adolescence (Sprinthall & Collins, 1995). Therefore, antisocial behaviour in childhood and adolescence are classified into behavioural disorders, stealing, cheating,

bullying, fighting with family member or peers, impulsiveness, vandalism, physical and psychological violence, to run away from home and school (Farrington, 2005). Consequently, antisocial behaviours have a great potential and influence regarding school failures, peer rejection, disruptiveness, delinquency, impairments in socio-emotional development, and adult crimes (Moffitt, 1993).

PARENTAL SUPPORT AND STUDENTS’ ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR

Parental support is one of the key indicators for measuring anti-social behavior. According to Murray, Farrington, and Sekol (2012), parental support means parental actions that offer love, empathy, nurturance, acceptance, information, guidance, and material resources to their children. Parents’ support greatly affects the development of behaviour in their children. In a study, Smith and Farrington (2005) found that lack of parental involvement, parental negligence, and low levels of parentchild relationship are strong indicators of antisocial behavior among children.

Fatima and Malik (2015) explored that majority of educators believe that

parents’ behavior with their kids, family background, and parents’ relationship with their children are the most significant reasons of creating aggressive behaviors. Domestic problems experienced by students in homes are clearly reflected in their abnormal behaviors at school. If the environment of the home is unstable or disturbed, if the parents-children relationship is not friendly, and there is a regular clash between them or other family members, then students demonstrate aggressive behaviour at school.

CAUSES OF ANTI SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AMONG SCHOOL STUDENT

Parents as Cause of Anti Social Behavior

It is desirable to know that relations in family have different influences on children depending on how they are seen from child’s perspective. In fact the „view of parents’ actions towards child reflects on the child’s view of itself, which influence recurrently later interpretation of their procedures“ (Knezevic-Floric, 2007, 91). The root of disorders is in a relation parent- child. Irresponsibility of parents, deficiency of love (which is most important in the first several years of life) “brings to the fact that children react with aggression on family, and later also on society“ (Ibidem, 130). According to Gibnes, these children have the following types of parents:

1. Parents actively reject children, and in that way create antisocial and aggressive persons inclined to fights and even to brutal crackdowns.

2. Parents are uninterested, not involved, most often guests in a house. They try to compensate shortfall of emotional investments with money, valuable and even unnecessary gifts.

3. Parents that are „inflexible, rigid in their attitudes“form inhibited children which are introvert, shy, apathetic and lukewarm“ (Bukelic, 2004, 304).

In these types of parents there are two types of antisocial behavior, and they are:

1. Primary disorders in social behavior with defiance, egocentrism and cruelty, appear because of defective super-ego. In this case stands out abnormal aggression, undeveloped sense of quilt and narcissistic self-valuation as important characteristics of this type of disturbed behaviour. Treatment of these persons is very difficult (and usually unsuccessful)

because of a bad emotional transfer in psycho therapeutic process (Ibidem, 304–305).

2. In the second type, in family education dominates austerity and repression. This is most often a neurotical type of disturbed behavior when social manifestations appear as some kind of enforce, and they are followed by sense of guilty and remorse. Their discharge of tension doesn’t work on a principle of sublimation but on a principle of abreaction. These delinquents „break rules in the same way, and because of that they are quickly discovered, which is interpreted as fulfillment of their need for punishment“

(Ibidem, 305). According to Jovan Bukelic, these delinquents have developed sense of injustice, “they often identify themselves with socially negative groups, they form gangs, they do everything to be loved“ (Ibidem, 305), and the repression wakes in them new aggression.

School and Peers as Cause of Anti Social Behaviour

School represents specific surroundings where students make relationships essentially different from those with family members which contributes to development and maturation of personality and also enrich their experience. School nevertheless fulfills educational function, has also an influence on the process of socialization of students where interaction with peers is very important. The characteristic of school influence on mutual relations of students and accomplishment of socializing role of peers, as well as an attitude towards school and learning depends on quality of interaction with peers (Joksimovic, 2004,). In modern social pedagogical science they pay big attention to causes of disorders in social behaviour. Concerning the school, as risky factors we can name the following:

1. Scarce resource and poverty of school (Sobot and collaborators, 2010, 58). 2. Situation factors (big schools, large number of students in classes, urban place where the school is situated).

2. Injurious teachers that don’t respect students and beside that don’t encourage collaboration between students, but competition.

4. Methods of work in class and leadership determinate authority, where does not exist collaborating atmosphere, encouragement of students to be active and tolerant with different opinions and ideas (Joksimovic, 2004,). In peers’ groups we can recognize next factors as risky ones:

1. Influence of antisocial peers.

2. Rejecting by peers and unpopularity of individuals. (Sobot and collaborators, 2010: 58) Results of longitudinal research, done by Kupersmitd and Coie, started with sample of students in the fifth grade of primary school, that have been followed in next seven years (till the end of high school), show that status between peers in preadolescent period influences on school maladjustment and delinquent behaviour in adolescence. The children participated in this research at the beginning had status of rejected ones, later in school functioning (fail exams, absence, expelling or abandonment of school). Rejecting by peers can cause different disorders whose nature depends on child’s life history, temperament and its way of reacting on a stress (Joksimovic, 2004, 58).

3. Influence of juvenile gangs (Sobot and collaborators, 2010, 58). Most of risky factors appear at the same time and in larger number, they are interlaced between them and increase the effect of each other. Probability to become chronicle delinquent, increases with increment of number of risky factors, no matter which particular factors of risk are in case.

Economic Factors as Cause of Anti Social Behavior

A great number of authors has researched the connection between juvenile delinquency and low economic possibilities (poverty), emphasizing: class position of juvenile’s family, which brings to status frustration, and/or creation of subculture, unequal distribution of social goods, and in poverty intermediate stigma (Ljubicic, 2006, 593). Viljem Bogner this delinquent behavior “ interprets with nature of relation in capitalistic society, which, based on distribution, encourages ego centrism of a person“ (Ljubicic, 2006, 593). Frederik Traser in explanation of juvenile delinquency starts with idea of subculture. Namely, unable to fulfill their needs in socially accepted way, because they have certain social position, they turn to their deviant micro environment. In that way deviant behavior represents normal way of adjustment on conditions of social disorganization (According to Ibidem, 593). Show and Mckay have noticed, connecting a theory of structure and a theory of subculture, that societies with the greatest level of delinquency are those where distribution of economic, cultural and social values is most unfavorable (According to Ibidem, 598). The connection between poverty and juvenile delinquency intrigues even today a large number of researchers. Jarjoura and collaborators have shown that economic deprivation of family which appears (or continues from before) until child is 5 years old, is significant predictive factor in formation of delinquent behavior in adolescence. Children growing up in poverty have lower academic success, show lower self-confidence, when parents look on them in impropriate way, because they usually don’t have good skills (According to Ibidem, 594).Therefore, we can conclude that low economic power correlates positively with inclination to social behavior disorders. It is necessary to define precisely the idea of delinquent behavior, that is different from juvenile originality, nonconformist behavior and confronting formation of so-called modal type of a person.In “multiplicity of values it is difficult for an adolescent to find its conscious and system of values, to anticipate the future, so it can come into moral crisis and protest behavior“ (Ibidem, 132). In effect, we can say that “an adolescent can oppose to a dominate culture, to assimilate attitudes of deviant groups, to search for group identity, run away from deviant social ambiance, that can give him an illusion of identity and liberty“ (Ibidem, 132). So that a negative energy of everyday life can move a positive approach to life, it is necessary to gather all the society and in this circumstances work on getting balance and patience in mutual relations. All this should be followed by more compatibility of words and actions because there is no solution for the problem of children’s aggression without solving a number of questions of life quality of people in society.

DIMENSIONS OF ANTI SOCIAL BEHAVIORS

To what extent can different dimensions of problem behavior be distinguished, and is there coherence across different manifestations of child problem behavior (Scrouge 1979), or are most of these behaviors only marginally related to each other? To address this question, Loeber and Schmaling (1985) performed a Meta analysis of the factor analyses based on these ratings from 28 studies covering over 11,000 youngsters. Using a multi dimensional scaling technique, they found that anti social child behavior can be represented on one dimension with two poles. On one extreme there are primarily confrontational or overt behaviors, while the other extreme mainly consists of non aggressive, concealing, or covert behaviors.

SCHOOL STUDENTS AT RISK OF ANTI SOCIAL PROBLEMS

The ‘at risk’ in this study is used to denote a set of presumed cause and effect dynamics that places the student in danger of negative future events. It is important to note that behaviors become dangerous (place the student at risk) only when the adolescent lacks the experience and knowledge to protect himself or herself from harm.

Minimal risk:

Adolescent who are from very stable homes, attend good schools, and have loving caring relationships with members of their families and friends are assumed to be at minimal risk. It is difficult to speak of a situation of no risk hence the term minimal risk. This is because no one altogether escapes the problems of life. In addition, neither favorable demographics nor good families and schools can make an adolescent invulnerable (Mitchell, 1996). Like anyone else, children form good homes may reject positive adult values and norms. Money, social status, popularity, and the good life do not necessarily guarantee meaning and purpose in life. It is a fact of life that sometimes the affluent families harbor a lifestyle that stem from and perpetuate dysfunction.

Remote risk:

This is the point on the continuum at which risk, though still remote seems increasingly possible owning to less positive family, school and social interaction. The demographic characteristics of low socio economic status are frequently associated with greater dropout rates, drug use, teen pregnancy, and the rest. Negative family, school, and social interactions and increased psycho social stresses (such as divorce or death in the immediate family or loss of family income) are also markers of potential problems.

High risk characteristics:

Dysfunctional families, poor schools, negative social interactions and numerous psychosocial stresses may nudge a young person towards at riskiness, but the final push is supplied by the person’s own negative attitudes, emotions and behaviors. High risk characteristics include: depression, anxiety, aggression, and hopelessness, as well as deficits in social skills and coping behaviors.

Imminent risks:

Individual high risk characteristics often find expression in gateway behaviors which places individual at imminent risk. A child’s aggression towards other children and adults, for example, is a gateway to juvenile delinquency. Although progression through each gateway is neither certain nor predictable, evidence linking gateway behaviors with more serious activities is so strong that such behaviors must be recognized as placing young people at imminent risk.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS THAT EXHIBITS ANTI SOCIAL BEHAVIORS

Gross and Capuzzi (1989) summarized 15 red flags that are characteristics of students who exhibit anti social behaviors within an educational setting.

1. Absent from classes

2. Failure of at least one class

3. Late to school or classes

4. Low scores in math and reading

5. Lack of motivation

6. Low grades

7. Little identification with school

8. No perceived relationship of education to life

9. Bored with school

10. Rebellious attitude towards authority

11. Deficient in language and verbal skills

12. Low tolerance for structured experience

13. Behind age group by at least a class

14. Acting out behavior

15. Truancy.

Truancy: truancy as a behavior problem is related with the school life of a child. Those children who willing make themselves absent from the classroom or outside classroom activities of the school without prior permission of their parents, teachers, or school authorities are termed as truants and such absenteeism related behavior is termed as truancy.

Truants try to challenge and defy the rules and regulations of the school and the authority of their parents and teachers. The initial truant behavior is reinforced on account of many factors. Once he is habituated, it becomes quite difficult for him to get adjusted with the school activities. Gradually it leads him to different types of abnormalities resulting into serious problematic, antisocial and delinquent behavior.

Stealing:

stealing refers to that behavior of an individual or child in which he engages himself in picking up or taking away some things (money or material objects) belonging to others without their consent or knowledge; pleads or exhibits his ignorance about the whereabouts of the object and keep an authorized possession of the picked up object with him or derives benefits by selling or giving it to somebody else of his choice.

Temper tantrums:

temper tantrums or temper outburst is a common sight for any professional who deals with the problems of the adolescent. Temper tantrum may be termed as an intense uncontrollable outburst of anger, expressed through cursing, kicking, hitting, biting, screaming, destruction of property and related behavior that may be dangerous to those around as well as to furnishings.

Drug addiction:

the behavioral problem associated with the drug addiction stands for that physiological and psychological state of an individual which is resulted through the prolonged and excessive use of an intoxicating drug which may be characterized by an intense craving or compulsion to obtain or consume it regardless of consequences, a tendency to increase the dosage with time; physiological and psychological dependence on the effects of the drug; manifestation of particular withdrawal symptoms on abrupt discontinuation of the drug, and to live and work only for consuming the drug. Udoh and Ajalah (2006) see drugs as that which alter the chemical components of the body as well as affect the central nervous system. Hornsby (2006) defines drug as a substance used for medical purpose either alone or in mixture. Hornsby adds that drug is a substance that changes the function of cells, organs or organism. Turner (2008) asserts that drugs are chemicals that influence or modify the action of the body’s own chemistry. At this juncture, it may be pertinent for us to look at the classification of hard drugs. Adeniyi (2002) classifies drugs based on their nature and function as follows:

1. Antibiotics: These are drugs directed against bacteria causing diseases. Examples of these drugs are penicillin, streptomyline, meamyline, tetracycline, choramphenical and so forth.

2. Stimulants: These are drugs taken to keep somebody away from sleep. Stimulants can also be taken to increase the physical activities of the individual. Examples of stimulants are examphetamine, amphetamine, tea and coffee. Tea and coffee contain caffeine which has a mild stimulating effect. Alcohol is sometimes classified as stimulant but for its nature it is more of depress and its stimulating effect due to the removal of inhibitions on individuals.

3. Sedatives: These are drugs used to induce calmness or to calm somebody but not necessarily to induce sleep. Examples are barbiturates, phenobarbitone, tranquilizers such as valium and largastics.

4. Narcotics: These are drugs that depress the central nervous system when taken.

5. Analgesics: These drugs prevent or suppress convulsion.

Drug abuse is a complex health and social problem which affect both developed and developing countries. It is sometimes referred to as substance or chemical abuse. Drug abuse among students has increased and has now become a source of public concern specifically among parents or guardians and teachers. Many students engage in drug abuse due to peer pressure, home environment, drug access, smoking habits, living in areas and family members influence. Children adopting to parents’ character this result into the increase of school dropouts, unwanted pregnancies and death related due to drug abuse which has caused serious threat to national health and welfare, Restuta Shirima 2002. According to the basic Education Statistics report 2009/10, student dropout rate in secondary schools is much higher in Ordinary Level and lower in Advanced Level classrooms in the country. Form Two has the highest number of student dropouts which stands at 9,627.

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Academic performance refers to how well a student is accomplishing his or her tasks and studies (Scortt‟s, 2012). According to Ward, Stocker and Murray-Ward (2006) academic performance refers to the outcome of education; the extent to which the student, teacher or institution have achieved their educational goals. Academic performance is the ability to study and remember facts and being able to communicate one‟s knowledge verbally or written on paper (Answers, 2010). Academic performance refers to the extent to which students have achieve mastery of the objectives of the subjects they are exposed to in school. According to (Aremu and Sokan 2003)Academic performance has been observed in school subjects especially mathematic and English language among secondary school students. The blame for poor academic performance among secondary school students could be attributable to a variety of factors such as student inability to manage their time, peers influence, family factors and the likes. Parents, teachers, curriculum, experts and evaluators have expressed considerable concern over the deteriorating students‟ performance in public examinations.

CAUSES OF POOR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

There are a lot of problems which cause students to attain poor academic performance. These include: anxiety, poor self-concept, and sexuality, poor methods of study, poor reading techniques, organ disabilities and indiscipline.

Anxiety:

According to (Mandler & Sarason, 1952) anxiety exists when individuals are at odds with themselves. The underlying conflict springs from a clash between incompatible impulses, desires and values. Secondary school students are in adolescence stage, whereby many adolescents are seriously confronted for the first time with facts about themselves and in specific their academic performance. This brings forth conflict and frustration in them that produce anxiety and tension thus affecting their concentration in studies and they end up performing poorly in academics.

Poor Self-Concept:

Self-concept is the sense of self. Its basis is ones knowledge of what he/she has been and has done. Self concept helps a student to understand himself/herself and regulate their behaviour. Teachers, parents, peers, personal motivation and the student's gender strongly influence a student's academic self-concept and academic achievement. Teacher’s approval/disapproval patterns are directly related to pupil’s academic self-concepts (Davidson & Lang, 1960). The more positive a student believes about his/her teacher's evaluation of him/her, the better his/her academic achievement as measured by grades, and vice versa. Poor Methods of Study A student with self-knowledge will develop a powerful motive or aim in academic achievement. Mutie and Ndambuki (1999) observe that poor organization, laziness, being easily distracted and lack of self-confidence are among issues that contribute to a student’s poor academic performance. But he emphasizes that through academic; teacher counselors can motivate students and help them improve their academic standards. To achieve academic success, a student needs to be trained on effective study methods and examination techniques.

Poor Reading Techniques

Many secondary students are faced with academic problems such as poor reading habits, whereby most of them are slow readers and do not comprehend what they read. Lack of recognition of underlying framework and the main points in information already acquired has contributed to students’ poor academic performance. Poor concentration has been an issue to many students who have performed poorly. Academic is thus a good remedy for students with reading problem by training them to have effective reading.

Indiscipline:

Indiscipline being act of disorder in a student against the established norms in a school has widely affected many students’ academic performance. Lindsay (1983) observes that there are two reasons why adolescents result in indiscipline. These are internal and external reasons. The internal reasons involve fulfilling the needs of the adolescent while the external reasons include individual, administrative and the social community causes. When the students‟ needs are not met, then they are frustrated and this affects their academic performance.

EFFECT OF ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR ON STUDENT ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Education attainment is a crucial predictor of several health related lifestyles and premature mortality. However truant behaviors have potential to curtail possibilities of meaningful academic achievement. Truancy is a predictor of multiple health risk behaviors among adolescents. Truant adolescents have been reported to engage in risky sexual practices, illicit drug use, alcohol drinking and cigarette smoking. Henry suggested that the unsupervised time that adolescents have when they are truant allows them to initiate and maintain unhealthy behaviors. (Azizi Yahya et al 2010)

Anti social behavior in childhood may be associated with adverse social and health outcome later in life. Studies have reported that adults who were anti social as adolescents were more likely to experience marital or job instability and psychological maladjustment when compared to their counterparts who were not anti social as adolescents. (Azizi Yahya et al 2010). The students’ notoriousness are not only confined to smoking cigarettes, fighting with each other or behaving obscenely but also involving dumping babies, running away from home, free sex and mingling. According to Belthelheim (1950), now they even dare to commit serious criminal acts such as joining bad syndicate and become gangsters, murder, with or without firearms burglar, rape, prostitution, gambling, vandalism, drug abuse, alcoholic, and pornography.

Absenteeism is detrimental to student’s achievement, promotion, graduation, self-esteem and employment potential. Clearly, students who miss school fall behind their peers in the classroom. This, in turn leads to low self-esteem and increase the likelihood that at-risk students will drop out of school. (Azizi Yahya et al 2010)

In longitudinal study of African-American males, Robins and Retcliff (1978) found that of those students who were often truant in high school and primary 75% failed to graduate. Failure to graduate, in turn, is associated with diminished earning potential in adulthood and other poor outcome.

About 3,210 secondary school students in Mtwara Region are not attending classes regularly due to lack of basic needs. Data from region education office show that 3,208 missed regular class lessons in the region. However, the situation has been attributed to truancy, the tendency, which diminishes student’s performance. Pass rate in secondary schools in Mtwara dropped from 60.4% in 2009 to 29% last year. (The Citizen 19th October 2011) .

Related studies about anti social behavior based on education were done, according to the Encyclopedia vol.VI E pp 87-103. Most countries spend a large amount of time and money to provide formal education for their citizens. The school system of all modern nations provides both general education and vocational training. Most countries also provide special education programs for disabled or gifted children. The book explains that effective classroom is one in which a warm relationship exists between teachers and students as the teacher selects contents and instructional strategies and use skills for better instructions and classroom management to improve students achievement. There is significant evidence that such an environment leads to higher understanding and transfer of learning (Hunter 1982, comings 1985). When this mutual respect and cooperation are absent, tension builds up between individuals and problems of discipline soon emerge. Most parents do not visit school except in response to problems. Parents’ involvement in the school activities is likely to be related to their own educational levels, and hence many illiterate parents may need encouragement to become involved in the running of schools. Parent attitudes towards education particularly not encouraging girls to acquire good education are also critical to students’ performance. Potentiality exists for academic based parents in all schools possibly at close of the term before the June breaks, Restuta Shirima (2002). Absenteeism is a serious problem for most schools in Tanzania. In most schools, attendance deteriorates in the higher classes i.e. form III and IV girls absenteeism is lower than boys who are perceived as having less desire to learn more and likely to be involved in petty trade. The most common reason for absenteeism is illness followed by death occurring in the family. Indeed illness is a recurring factor which contributes strongly to absenteeism, dropout and non-enrolment. (Basic education statistics report 2009/10).

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The social development model

The theory identifies salient socialization units and etiological processes for each of the four phases of social development: preschool, elementary school, middle school, and high school. The phases are separated by major transitions in the environments in which children are socialized; they are not conceived as stages of cognition and moral development (Kohlberg, 1969, 1979; Piaget 1965). Transitions from the home environment to elementary school and from the relatively self-contained classrooms of elementary school to the modularized environment of middle school are nearly universally experienced transitions accompanied by shifts in the balance of influence among socializing units of families, schools, and peers. The four models delineate specific predictors for each developmental period. The theory describes reciprocal processes of causation between developmental periods in which behavior at one period are expected to affect subsequent social development processes.

The social developmental Theory developed by Hawkins and Weis, (2002), suggests that individuals develop bonds to groups and organizations when they experience opportunities for involvement, possess necessary skills for involvement, and receive positive feedback regarding their involvement. Once an individual bonds to a context they are more likely to behave according to the group’s norms and beliefs. The Social Development Model highlights the steps to developing programs that promote bonding and positive behavior development. The following research to practice points provides specific programming guidelines. Youth will tend to form groups that engage in similar activities, those using drugs will be able to identify with each other since they are more comfortable with the same group hence the influence will be equal in the entire group. Hawkins and Weis (2002) proposes that drug use and deviant behaviors emerge from interactions with the primary socialization sources--the family, the school, and peer clusters. The theory further postulates that the individual's personal characteristics and personality traits do not directly relate to drug use and deviance, but, in nearly all cases, influence those outcomes only when they affect the interactions between the individual and the primary socialization sources.

Interpretation of research results from the point of view of primary socialization theory suggests the following: Characteristics such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem are related to drug use and deviance only when they have strong effects on the primary socialization process among younger children, Traits such as anger, aggression, and sensation seeking are related to drug use and deviance because these traits are more likely to influence the primary socialization process at all ages, The psycho pathologies that are least likely to interfere with bonding with pro social socialization sources, the anxieties and most of the affective disorders, are less likely to have comorbidity drug dependence.

Risk and protective Theory: -

The theory organizes the evidence regarding risk and protective factors for delinquency and substance use by hypothesizing the theoretical mechanism through which these factors operate to increase or decrease the likelihood of antisocial behavior.

This theory hypothesize that children must learn patterns of behavior, whether pro-social or anti social. They learn these patterns of behavior from socializing units of family, school, religious and other community institutions and peers. It is hypothesized that that the underlying socialization follows the same processes of social learning whether it produces pro-social or problem behavior. Children are socialized through processes involving four constructs;

a) Perceived opportunities for involvement and interaction with others.

b) The degree of involvement and interactions.

c) The skills to participate in these involvements and interactions.

d) The reinforcement they perceive as forthcoming from performance in activities and interactions.

When these socializing processes are consistent, a social bond develops between the individual and the socializing unit. Once strongly established, this social bond has the power to affect behavior independently of the four social learning processes, by creating an informal control on future behavior.

This control inhibits deviant behaviors through the establishment of an individual’s stake in conforming to the norms and values of the socializing unit.

It is hypothesized that the behavior of the individual will be pro-social or antisocial depending on the predominant behaviors, norms, and values held by those to whom the individual is bonded.

Developmental theories of anti social behavior

Anti social behaviors appears to be a developmental trait that begins early in life and often continues into adolescence and adulthood. For many children, stable manifestations of anti social behavior begin as early as elementary school grades, (Farrington, Ohlin, & Wilson, 1986; Loeber, 1982; and Olweus, 1979). As Olweus noted, stability coefficients for childhood aggression rival the figures derived for the stability of IQ. Findings that early behaviors such as temper tantrums and grade school troublesome significantly predict adolescent and adult offenses suggest the existence of a single underlying continuum. If early forms of anti social behaviors are indeed the forerunners of the later anti social acts, then the task for developmental psychologists is to determine which mechanism explains the stability of anti social behavior and which control changes overtime.