INVESTIGATION OF THE COVID-19 SAFETY COMPLIANCE LEVEL OF TRANSPORT COMPANIES IN ABUJA (A CASE STUDY OF AKWA IBOM TRANSPORT COMPANY, JABI)

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

Transportation

Transportation According to Oxford English Dictionary, transport was derived from two Latin words ‘trans’ which mean ‘across’ and ‘portare’ which mean ‘carry’. Transportation is the movement of people and goods from one location to another (Microsoft Encarta, 2009). According to Merriam Webster Dictionary, transportation is an act, process, or instance of transporting or being transported. The same dictionary also defines it as a means of conveyance or travel from one place to another or a public conveyance of passengers or goods especially as a commercial enterprise. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003) defines transportation as a process or business of taking goods from one place to another or a system for carrying passengers or goods from one place to another. Transportation refers to the process of conveying or moving of goods and people from place to place (Anyanwu et al 1997). According to Good and Jebbin (2015) transportation is a system for carrying passengers, raw materials and goods from one place to another both internally and internationally, often through power driven machines. It is commonly said to refer to movement of people and goods from one place to another (Okeafor, 1998). Transportation service is the port of physical distribution activity which is concerned with the actual movement of goods to their various consumers (Good and Jebbin, 2015). This service enhances the fulfillment of production because production is said to be achieved if and only if goods get to the final consumers. Transportation system has several elements or essentials without which it cannot function, the elements are; 1. Infrastructure, which includes the transportation network (i.e. roads, railways, airways, canals, pipelines, etc); 2. Vehicles, such as automobiles, trains, airplanes etc. This generally moves on the networks; 3. Operations, which deal with the control of the system such as traffic, signal and ramp meters, rail-road switches, air traffic control, etc, as well as policies, such as how to finance the system, for instance, use of tolls or gasoline taxes in the case of highway transport; 4. Nodes or terminals (such as airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports), they are points where there is an access to any specialized form of way (infrastructure) (Adeniran & Yusuf, 2016). Transportation systems are composed of a complex set of relationships between the demand, the locations they service and the networks that support movements. They are mainly dependent on the commercial environment from which are derived operational attributes such as transportation costs, capacity, efficiency, reliability and speed. Such conditions are closely related to the development of transportation networks, both in capacity and in spatial extent. Transportation systems are also evolving within a complex set of relationships between transport supply, mainly the operational capacity of the network, and transport demand, the mobility requirements of a territory (Jean, Claude and Brian, 2006). 2.4 Transport costs and transport rates Transport costs are a monetary measure of what the transport provider must pay to produce transportation services. They come as fixed (infrastructure) and variable (operating) costs, depending on a variety of conditions related to geography, infrastructure, administrative barriers, energy, and on how passengers and freight are carried. Three major components, related to transactions, shipments and the friction of distance impact on transport costs (Jean, Claude and Brian, 2006). Transport rates are the price of transportation services paid by their users. They are the negotiated monetary cost of moving a passenger or a unit of freight between a specific origin and destination. Transport rates are often visible to the consumers since transport providers must provide this information to secure transactions. They may not necessarily express the real transport costs. The difference between transport costs and transport rates results in either a loss or a deficit from the transport service provider (Jean, Claude and Brian, 2006). Transport systems face requirements to increase their capacity and to reduce the costs of movements. All users (e.g. individuals, enterprises, institutions, governments, etc.) have to negotiate or bid for the transfer of goods, people, information and capital because supplies, distribution systems, tariffs, salaries, locations, marketing techniques as well as fuel costs are changing constantly. There are also costs involved in gathering information, negotiating, and enforcing contracts and transactions, which are often referred as the cost of doing business. Trade involves transaction costs that all agents attempt to reduce since transaction costs account for a growing share of the resources consumed by the economy (Jean, Claude and Brian, 2006). Frequently, enterprises and individuals must take decisions about how to route passengers or freight through the transport system. This choice has been considerably expanded in the context of the production of lighter and high value consumer goods, such as electronics, and less bulky production techniques. It is not uncommon for transport costs to account for 20 percent of the total cost of a product. Thus, the choice of a transportation mode to route people and freight within origins and destinations becomes important and depends on a number of factors such as the nature of the goods, the available infrastructures, origins and destinations, technology, and particularly their respective distances. Jointly, they define transportation costs (Jean, Claude and Brian, 2006).

Transport Modes in Nigeria

Land transportation: This accounts for the great majority of energy consumption. Road transportation alone is consuming on average 90% of the total energy used by the transport sector in Nigeria. This trend is not however uniform within the land transportation sector itself, as road transportation is almost the sole mode responsible for the greater chunk of the energy demand in the past two decades. Land transport in Nigeria is characterized by road, rail and pipeline systems. Road transport is further subdivided into cars, trucks, buses, motor-bikes, tricycles and military vehicles. Rail transport remains the most energy efficient land transport, and used for longdistance freight and all distances of passenger transport. Despite a falling market share, rail transport, on the basis of 1 kg of oil equivalent, remains four times more efficient for passenger than and twice as efficient for freight movement as road transport (IEA, 2005). Pipeline is another mode of land transportation which is used to transport fluids like oil and gas in Nigeria.

Water transportation: In Nigeria is far the least developed looking at all the modes of transport in the country. The percentage of energy consumed in the sector is far less than what is obtainable in other modes. Nigeria has 8,600 kilometers of inland waterways. The longest are the Niger Rive and its tributary, the Benue River but the most used, especially by larger powered boats and for commerce, are in the Niger Delta and all along the coast from Lagos Lagoon to Cross River. This mode of transport is being developed so as to improve the transportation of goods and passengers across the country. There has been dredging of some Rivers and revitalization of Inland Water Ways to enhance marine transport. Energy consumed in the marine transport accounts for less than 1 percent of the total energy consumed in the transport sector in Nigeria.

Air transportation: This plays an integral part in the development of transportation networks. The aviation industry accounts for 8% of the energy consumed by transportation in Nigeria. There are about 26 airports in Nigeria with paved runways. There are also about 21 Airstrips built mainly by the Nigerian airforce and multinational oil companies scattered about the country. Air transport has high energy consumption levels, linked to high speeds. Fuel is the second most important budget for the air transport industry accounting for 13- 20% of total expenses. Technological innovations, such as more efficient engines and better aerodynamics, have led to a continuous improvement of the energy efficiency of each new generation of aircrafts. Over the years, the aviation industry has improved significantly, thereby increasing the number of airlines as well as passengers in Nigeria.

CORONAVIRUS

The Corona virus is a large group of viruses that resemble a crown. The word corona is a Latin word meaning crown (UNESCO 2020). There are different types of corona viruses and people around the world commonly get infected with human corona viruses 229E, NL63, OC43, and HKU1. The Middle East Respiratory Syndrome or MERS-CoV; Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome or SARS; and novel Corona virus or SARS-CoV-2 are all caused by corona viruses and result in severe respiratory illnesses. The 2019 novel corona virus (SARS-CoV-2), which causes COVID-19, was first identified in Wuhan, China, among people having pneumonia. These ones were associated with seafood and the live animal market. In China, as of February 14, 2020, there were 51986 confirmed cases in a single province (Hubei); out of which, 1318 cases died (Tellier, H. 2020).

Transmission

The role of the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in propagating the disease is unclear. Many initial COVID-19 cases were linked to this market, suggesting that SARS-CoV-2 was transmitted from animals to humans. However, a genomic study has provided evidence that the virus was introduced from another, yet unknown location, into the market where it spread more rapidly, although human-to-human transmission may have occurred earlier. Clusters of infected family members and medical workers have confirmed the presence of person-to-person transmission. After January 1, less than 10% of patients had market exposure and more than 70% of patients had no exposure to the market. Person-to-person transmission is thought to occur among close contacts mainly via respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Fomites may be a large source of transmission, as SARS-CoV has been found to persist on surfaces for up to 96 hours and other coronaviruses for up to 9 days. Whether or not there is asymptomatic transmission of disease is controversial. Findings about disease characteristics are rapidly changing and subject to selection bias. A study indicated the mean incubation period was 5.2 days (95% confidence interval [95%CI]: 4.1–7.0). The incubation period has been found to be as long as 19 or 24 days, although case definition typically relies on a 14-day window (Wu, L., Morstatter, F., Carley, K. M., & Liu, H. 2019). Misinformation in Social).

CORONA VIRUS IN NIGERIA

COVID-19, a deadly illness caused by a corona virus, was first reported in Nigeria on February 27, 2020. The index case was an Italian construction worker who had returned from Milan. Since February 2020, the number of infections has escalated to over 52,000 with over 900 deaths in August. In response to rising infections and deaths, the Nigerian government issued directives for lockdowns and social distancing in the three worst-hit states of Lagos, Ogun, and Abuja, the country’s capital. State governors also issued total or partial lockdowns in their respective regions based on prevailing circumstances. However, lockdowns caused untold hardships for many Nigerians, due to the government’s chaotic and lousy social welfare structures (Obokoh, A. 2020). The Nigeria Center for Disease Control (NCDC) and the Federal Ministry of Health have been at the forefront of efforts to combat COVID-19 in Nigeria. Both organizations have been active in setting up isolation centers, hospitals, and spaces to manage suspected and confirmed cases. The NCDC has also been engaged in training personnel and setting up rapid-response teams across Nigeria’s 36 states. However, despite efforts to combat the spread of COVID-19, both organizations have been seriously challenged by a particular problem-the spread of misinformation or false information about COVID-19. The spread of misinformation has been described as the single biggest danger Nigeria faces in its fight against COVID-19. Misinformation has created public panic and is inhibiting efforts to stop the spread of the corona virus in Nigeria and across Africa, as well as promoting fear and anxiety among the masses about taking the Covid-19 vaccine (Maclean & Dahil 2020).

The Effect of the COVID-19

The few studies show that the last millennium's major historical pandemics have typically been associated with subsequent low returns as assets (Jorda, Singh and Taylor, 2020). Transportation companies had a difficulties in operation as the biggest challenge to short and long term recovery in the Covid19 situation (Cumbie, 2017). Bartik, Bertrand, Cullen, Gbeser, Luca, and Stanton (2020), conducted a survey of more than 80 transportation companies, between March 28 and April 4, 2020. The result revealed that there were mass layoffs, closure of business, different beliefs about the likely duration of the COVID related disruptions, many businesses are financially on the brink, and most businesses planned to seek funding. COVID 19 has caused a significant economic shock (Seth, Ganaie, and Zafar 2020). Drop-in oil prices, Naira under severe pressure to Dollar current official rate, rising inflation, significant job losses. In March 2020, the ILO estimated that the impact of COVID-19 would result in a rise in global unemployment of between 5.3m (low scenario) and 24.7m (high scenario) ILO, 2020). Another impact of COVID-19 is the continuous protection of workers' health and safety and reducing workers' exposure to COVID-19 in the workplace. (KPMG, 2020). A characteristic of the Pandemic has been the switch from face to face to digital connection for schooling, higher education, business meetings, health consultations, shopping, and cultural events (Phillipson et al., 2020).) The consequence of Covid-19 on the economy and financial markets in Nigeria: economic lockdown of major cities (Abuja, Lagos, and Ogun State) on March 30, 2020, leading to economic loss especially for daily.

COVID-19 CONTROL AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES

COVID-19 is clearly a serious disease of international concern. By some estimates, it has a higher reproductive number than SARS, and more people have been reported to have been infected or died from it than SARS. Similar to SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, disrupting the chain of transmission is considered key to stopping the spread of disease. Different strategies should be implemented in health care settings and at the local and global levels. Most governments invoked lock down measures while other personal preventive measures were advised.

Thus, to prevent further spread of the virus, civil society and government agencies-initiated awareness programs for promotion of several preventive measures. Body temperature screening was conducted at airports and those returning from countries with a high number of confirmed cases of COVID-19 were advised to self-isolate. The Nigeria Center for Disease Control, in collaboration with state governments, also initiated tracing and tracking of victims and their contacts. In March 2020, the Nigerian government prohibited all gatherings of fifty people or above for four weeks and ordered a stay-at-home (Onapajo, H. & Adebiyi, J. 2020). Similarly, the Nigerian government, on 30th March 2020, introduced various containment plans, such as the closing of the national borders and airspace, schools, worship centers, and other public places, cancellation of public gathering events, and the complete lockdown of the Federal Capital Territory, Lagos and Ogun states for fourteen days initially (Radio Nigeria, 2020). Body temperature screening was conducted at airports and those returning from countries with a high number of confirmed cases of COVID-19 were advised to self-isolate.

Some stipulated COVID 19 preventive measures are listed as follows:

1. Social distance
2. Self-isolation
3. Washing of hands with detergent or use of alcohol based sanitizers 4. Putting on a face mask in public places

Methods of preventing the onset and spread of the virus include strengthening health publicity and education; maintaining environmental health; keeping good personal hygiene; drinking boiled water; avoiding raw food consumption; frequent hand washing; avoidance of touch (especially around the eyes, ears and mouth); disinfecting surfaces of objects in households, toilets, public places, vehicles; disinfecting the excreta and environment of patients in medical facilities to prevent water and food contamination.

SOCIAL DISTANCING

The concept of socio-distancing in infectious diseases control: social distancing combined with good respiratory hygiene and hand washing are considered the most feasible way to reduce or delay a pandemic that is on course. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) described social distancing as a set of “methods for reducing frequency and closeness of contact between people in order to decrease the risk of transmission of disease”. In the course of the 2019-2020 coronavirus pandemic, the CDC revised the definition of social distancing as “remaining out of congregate settings, avoiding mass gatherings, and maintaining distance (approximately six feet or two meters) from others when possible”. Therefore, in basic terms, social distancing entails physical distancing. The key reason for physical distancing is to reduce the spread of the virus by contact. WHO elucidates that the instance an infected person coughs or sneezes, droplets containing the virus are deposited on objects and surfaces where people may likely touch and as such anyone in close proximity of about 1-2 meters may be at risk. When appropriate physical distance is maintained, the potential to contract and spread of the virus is reduced [Nigeria Health Watch 2020]. Each country affected by the pandemic has reported similar narratives of social, cultural or religious gatherings where large numbers of people spent extended hours in close proximity promoted the spread of the pandemic. People around the world have not taken physical distancing seriously, and this seems to also be the case in Nigeria. When Italy witnessed its first cases of coronavirus, ‘physicaldistancing´ was not one of the measures required by their government, consequently, the population continued with close physical interactions which led to widespread community transmission of the virus.

SOCIAL DISTANCING SCENARIO IN NIGERIA

The first confirmed incident of the COVID-19 in Nigeria was announced on February 27, 2020, when an Italian citizen arriving Nigeria through the Lagos Airport tested positive for the virus. On March 9, 2020, a second case of the virus was reported in Ogun State, a Nigerian citizen in transit from Milan to Lagos who had contact with the Italian citizen. Afterwards, the Nigerian Health Minister announced that 60 persons who had contact with the index Italian patient were under isolation, 40 persons in Ogun State and 20 in Lagos State. However, there has been an increase in confirmed cases and consequent mortality. As of May 16, 2020, according to report from Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), there have been 5621 confirmed cases, 3973 active cases in 34 states including the FCT with 176 deaths and 1472 recoveries(Nairaland 2020). On March, 9, 2020, the Nigerian President in a proactive measure to curtail the spread of this virus declared national border closures, State of emergency in the health sector was ordered and cessation of all movements in the FCT, Lagos State and Ogun State for an initial period of 14 days. Relatedly, other states of the federation taking cue, initiated partial lock-downs with each closing their respective borders. During this period, businesses, markets, religious centers, schools and other public institutions and spaces are to be on temporal shut down. All forms of corporate, social and religious gatherings were prohibited, howbeit; strict adherence to social distancing is expected in exclusive cases. Unfortunately, compliance with the directives has become a challenge as many fail in its adherence either due to ignorance or complete defiance. Several cases abound where there were partial or zero adherence. For instance, a typical scenario plays out in most public places such as banks where customers seeking to gain access into banking halls clustered outside. In more organized societies, in helping people maintain the required distance apart during this pandemic, standing boxes measuring 2-3 meters are drawn for queue in most public places.

In states with partial lock-down people are not cognizant of maintaining the required interpersonal distancing. Public buses and taxis are closely packed with passengers as in normal time. Although states were defaulters are subjected to stringent penalties, the degree of compliance is higher. Failure to abide by this breeds danger especially in Nigeria where the quality of our health care systems and our ever increasing population are a bad mix. Could some of these cases of defaulters be attributed to indifference and lackadaisical inclination of most Nigerians or is it a clear case of insubordination and tendency for civil disobedience in developing country where the citizen´s patriotism and respect for government is poor? Such attitude may also be attributable to lack of responsibility by the government to her citizen. Recent local news that made rounds during the lock down involved celebrities and politicians hosting a house party in the city while under lock down. After being duly arraigned, it was also observed that the caution of physical distancing was also not respected at the court hearing as journalists and onlookers milled together. Another audacious show of defiance to the call for social distancing was on display on a national television, TVC during the funeral of the Chief of Staff to the President. Prior to his death he had tested positive to the COVID-19 virus after a return trip from Germany on March 24, 2020. Despite government´s initial announcement that the burial would be conducted in private to show compliance with the guidelines against the spread of COVID-19, it was observed that a cross section of the sympathizers in attendance were crowded with only very few observing physical distancing. The carelessness did not go without public criticism though the federal government has since apologized. Adherence to the rules and precepts is more important to safeguard lives.

FEEDBACK IN THE ENFORCEMENT OF SOCIAL-DISTANCING

In restricting movement and encouraging social-cum-physical distancing, the lockdown having its positives also has its fair share of negative feedback. With cases of civil attacks resulting into deaths of people in the hands of law enforcers. A Nigerian Television Station on April 9, 2020 reported the killing of about six people in Kaduna State by suspected law enforcement agents. Similar case was also reported in Delta State where there was an altercation between the natives and soldiers resulting in the death of a native. Instances of defaulting, defiance and violence bring to question whether the lockdown is really serving its purpose. The apparent psychological state of the people coupled with the harsh socio-economic situation in the country may have contributed to the unrest and resistance. Hence, in the face of provocation and rebellion, law enforcement agents should be humane with civilized sense of duty Another critical point of dialogue during a lockdown has to do with insufficient socio-economic cushion for the people especially as it concerns the indigents and the vulnerable in the society. A country where more than 85% of its population survives economically on a day-to-day basis, their means of livelihood is sure to be hampered by lockdown. Considering this reality, challenges of inadequate supplies and meagre palliative measures or none from government raises major concerns. Though the government has reeled out laudable initiatives, very little impact has been made. While some complain about marginalization due to the lopsided delivery of these palliatives, others feel its administration and distribution is grossly politicized and not transparent. More so, in some centers where these distributions are conducted, it is observed that social distancing is usually the last thing on the mind of the beneficiaries a succinct description of the struggle between life and livelihood. In combating this COVID-19 pandemic, the government, civil society organizations and humanitarian agencies can ameliorate the living conditions of the less-privileged by being proactive and deliberate in meeting their basic need so as to prevent needless death caused by poverty and hunger. Though there remain a genuine and exigent need for ‘social distancing´, but what this really calls for is ‘physical distancing´ as people can remain socially active whilst maintaining physical distance. Instead of the usual visit to/by family and friend, the social media affords people the opportunity to connect, stay in touch and be entertained. As imperative as it, it is hard to ask people to abruptly alter their social norms and instinctive habits. However, desperate time calls for desperate measures. Maintaining physical distancing is one of the proven measures to limit the spread of coronavirus, so people must learn to change their lifestyle to stay alive.

COVID-19 SAFETY COMPLIANCE LEVEL OF TRANSPORT COMPANIES

Compliance with COVID-19 preventive measure is a double edge sword cutting through the fabric of the everyday life of the Nigerian citizen and in the business environment entirely.To prevent further spread of the virus, civil societies, and government agencies-initiated awareness programs for promotions of several preventive measures. Transportation companies are made to ensured that they stick to the preventive measures at stipulated by NCDC which they have strategically ensure that businesses comply and strictly adhere to the covid-19 safety guidelines. These include the following:

• Social distancing

Social distancing otherwise known as physical distancing works if the objective is to prevent the spread of the virus causing the coronavirus disease. Social distancing, also known as “physical distancing,” entails keeping space of at least 6 feet between yourself and other people outside of your home.

The principles of social distancing or physical distancing are;

1. Keep at least 6 feet (about 2 arms’ length) from other people.
2. stay away from crowded events or places and avoid mass gatherings.

Among all COVID-19 preventive measures, maintaining social distancing among ourselves is among the best tools we have to avoid being exposed to this virus and curbing the spread of the virus in our community. (CDC, 2020).These safety guidlines was complied to by universities by ensuring they reduce class size and adjusting to seating position during lectures.

• Washing of Hands with Detergents or Sanitizing Hands Using Alcohol-Based Hand Sanitizers:

Another covid-19 safety guidelines that has been adhered to strictly by transportation companies after resumption was the hand washing culture. In university of ilorin, handwashing outlets was fixed at the entrance of the school gate and each lecture hall (Adeogun 2021). With many viruses, including corona virus, the virus is a self assembled nano-particle in which the most vulnerable structure is the outer lipid bilayer. Detergents dissolve the lipid membrane of microorganisms; virus inclusive. The virus's outer layer breaks apart thus inactivating it. Detergents are also alkaline substances that dissolve particles like dirt, bacteria, and viruses. These dissolved articles are washed off from the surface of the skin when the detergent is rinsed off while washing our hands., The alkalinity of the detergent (pH approximately 9-10), compared with the normal alkalinity of outer skin witha pH of 5.5 or lower, also can affect the skin barrier as well as the resident skin micro flora. In a study, it was found that an acid skin pH (4-4.5) keeps the resident bacterial flora attached to the skin, whereas an alkaline pH (8-9) promotes the dispersal from the skin in assessments of the volar forearm. (Lambers, Piessens, Bloem, Pronk, & Finkel, 2006). Considering the effectiveness of hand washing against the COVID-19 pandemic, the frequency of hand washing has been shown to have a limiting impact on influenza-like illness. A study of 2,082 observations, participants who spent only 5-10 seconds washing their hands with soap were more likely to contract influenza-like illness (odds ratio, 1.37; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-1.75), compared to participants who washed their hands for 15 seconds or more.

Hand washing with detergents was found to be an independent protective factor against frequent influenza-like illnesses like coronavirus disease (Abdulrahman, et al., 2019). Alcohol throughout history has been used as a disinfectant, it is recommended for disinfecting the hands since the late 1800s. Some alcohol-based hand sanitizers contain isopropanol, ethanol, N-propanol, or a combination of both. The antimicrobial ability of alcohol can be attributed to its ability to breakdown and coagulate proteins, thus lysing microorganism’s cell membranes and terminating their cellular metabolism (Toney-Butler & Carver, 2020) (McDonnell & Russell, 1999). Alcohol solutions within the range of about 60% to 95% alcohol prove to be more effective against the viruses. Notably, alcohol with concentrations lower than 60 percent and higher than 90 percent appear to be less potent because of the presence of less water in the later, and proteins are not broken down easily in the absence of water (Wesley & Talakoub, 2020).

• Putting on Face Mask in Public Places and within the school environment:

Putting on face mask is another safety guideline adhered to by passengers. This is practically prevalent seen when security personnels are mounted at the entrance of the school gate and lecture halls; ensuring that no student enters the school environment without putting on a face mask (Arit 2021). The report from a multidisciplinary group convened by the Royal Society called Delve (Data Evaluation and Learning for Viral Epidemics) has considered the evidence and concluded in favor of public use of face masks, including homemade cloth coverings to tackle Covid-19. Analysis suggests that this could reduce onward transmission by persons who have the disease but are not showing any symptoms or pre-symptomatic persons. if widely used in situations where physical distancing is not possible or predictable, it is worth noting that the use of face masks, including homemade cloth masks, can to a great extent contribute to reduction of the viral transmission (Davis, 2020)

For most employers, protecting workers will depend on emphasizing basic infection prevention measures. As appropriate, all employers should implement good hygiene and infection control practices, including:

• Promote frequent and thorough hand washing, including by providing workers, customers, and worksite visitors with a place to wash their hands. If soap and running water are not immediately available, provide alcohol-based hand rubs containing at least 60% alcohol.
• Encourage workers to stay home if they are sick.
• Encourage respiratory etiquette, including covering coughs and sneezes.
• Provide customers and the public with tissues and trash receptacles.
• Employers should explore whether they can establish policies and practices, such as flexible worksites (e.g., telecommuting) and flexible work hours (e.g., staggered shifts), to increase the physical distance among employees and between employees and others if state and local health authorities recommend the use of social distancing strategies.
• Discourage workers from using other workers’ phones, desks, offices, or other work tools and equipment, when possible.
• Maintain regular housekeeping practices, including routine cleaning and disinfecting of surfaces, equipment, and other elements of the work environment. When choosing cleaning chemicals, employers should consult information on Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-approved disinfectant labels with claims against emerging viral pathogens. Products with EPA-approved emerging viral pathogens claims are expected to be effective against SARS-CoV-2 based on data for harder to kill viruses. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for use of all cleaning and disinfection products (e.g., concentration, application method and contact time, PPE).

However the compliance level among transportation companies in Nigeria especially Akwaibom State transport company has been shown in relative ways such as:

• Ensuring that there is a hand washing basin at the entrance of the park with a security man mounted to ensure customers and staffs wash their hands before entering their business outlet.
• Fixing of Automated Hand Sanitizer dispenser at the entrance of their park so as to enable customers sanitize their hands before entering for patronage.
• Fixing of a “no face mask no entry” sign at the screen of buses and cars which raises the consciousness of the customers on the need to wear their face mask as preventive measure of the novel disease.
• Ensuring that social distance is maintained even among passengers, as one seat space is left before the next passenger seats. Which is capable of reducing the chances of the next passenger of being infected.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework guiding the research would be Health Belief Model.

Health Belief Model

The Health Belief Model (HBM) was developed to help understand why people did or did not use preventive services offered by public health departments in the 1950’s, and has evolved to address newer concerns in prevention and detection (e.g., mammography screening, influenza vaccines) as well as lifestyle behaviors such as sexual risk behaviors and injury prevention. The HBM theorizes that people’s beliefs about whether or not they are at risk for a disease or health problem, and their perceptions of the benefits of taking action to avoid it, influence their readiness to take action. Core constructs of the HBM: • Perceived susceptibility and perceived severity • Perceived benefits and perceived barriers • Cues to action • Self-efficacy (added more recently) The HBM has been most-often applied for health concerns that are prevention-related and asymptomatic, such as early cancer detection and hypertension screening – where beliefs are as important or more important than overt symptoms. The HBM is also clearly relevant to interventions to reduce risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

Source: Becker, M. H. & Maiman, L. A., (1975). Socio-behavioral determinants of compliance with health and medical care recommendations. Medical Care, 134(1), 10-24.

2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

In a study conducted by Anyanwu (2021) focused on the impact of social distancing and frequent hand washing in reducing the spread of corona virus (covid-19) in Nigeria using Ifako-Ijaiye Local Government Area in Lagos State as a case study . The research employed Survey research design and convenience sampling method. The researcher purposively selected 200 respondent who are staffs of the ten(10) selected commercial bank branches in Ifako-Ijaiye Local Government Area in Lagos State. Questionnaire was issued, retrieved and validated for the study. Data was analyzed using frequency and tables. Hypothesis was tested using Chi-Square Statistical tools. Findings from the study revealed that social distancing has a significant impact on the social life of Nigerians and a huge impact on the economy howver on the positive both hand sanitation and social distancing has helped to control the spread of the novel virus. The study therefore recommends that Provision should be made at the entrance of all business environmentto encourage hand washing and other safety hygenic practices.

Torty (2021) in his study on covid-19 safety compliance level among Wuse Market Traders in Abuja.The survey research design was used for the study. Convenience sampling was used in the study as the researcher purposively selected one hundred and thirty-seven (137) traders in Wuse Market Abuja. Data was presented and analyzed using frequency and tables. Findings from the study reveals that wuse market was shut down because of non-compliance and after the traders plead, the compliance level increased. The study therefore recommends that Government should establish standby security and task force teams to enforce adherence to the COVID-19 pandemic preventive measures among other popular market in Abuja and other part of Nigeria. Consumers and those who patronize popular markets should endeavour to use face masks when going to the market to buy household items as this would curb the spread of the virus.