PERCEPTION OF STUDENTS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. Introduction
The problems/causes of poor academic performance in primary school mathematics is simply the problem of mathematics education in general. As a matter of fact, mathematics education is not a job of one person. It is a combined effort of both the learners, teachers, parents, government and even the society. Suffice it therefore to infer that most (if not all) of the causes of poor academic performance in primary school mathematics particularly and in higher school in general is centred on the above mentioned group of persons. They can cause the promotion and/or the retardation of the general students’ performance in mathematics and even other school subjects.
Care must therefore be taken by all these groups in educating the child, mathematically, the poor mathematics performance of pupils is evident in the first school leaving certificate examination. This chapter is aimed at reviewing the related literature in the subject of study to facilitate the understanding of the issues involved. The chapter is sub divided into the following:
1.Pupils attitude towards the learning of mathematics
2.Teachers professional qualification
3.The use of teaching aid in mathematics parental involvement
4.Parental involvement
5.The head teacher and his administration
6.Environmental influence
7.Government/political influence
8.Parents socio-economic status and performance in mathematics
2.1. Pupils Attitude towards Learning Mathematics
It has been observed that pupils’ performance in mathematics is very low and that pupils poor performance in mathematics result from themselves. No pupil is ever ready for a mathematics class. Even the psychological state of the child who is in class causes a great deal of laxity. There is always the fear in them that mathematics is difficult. It is also clear that pupils’ don’t have time to go through their mathematics notes (or textbooks) after the actual mathematics lesson at home. Attitude towards mathematics has been considered an important factor influencing participation and success in mathematics.
Weidmann and Humphrey (2000), states that investigation into students mathematics attitude and perspective not only informs teachers, parents and administrators about students need, but also serves as a catalyst for reform in mathematics education. There is a research showing evidence that students’ high performance in mathematics and mathematics learning. Mullis (2000) reported that gender difference in attitude towards mathematics influenced some researchers to study some affective variables as mediators of gender differences in mathematics achievement.
Papanastasious (2000), opined that even among those students that found a significant relationship between pupils’ attitude and their performance in mathematics, there was still a controversy regarding the educational implications of the results. For example, some researchers concluded that although statistically, the mean effect size for the relationship between attitude towards mathematics and achievement in mathematics was strong enough to have useful implications for educational practice.
Cote and Levine (2000); Singh, Granville and Dika (2000); and Tymm (2001) investigated 21,000 students attitude towards mathematics and suggested that the most important factors were the teacher and student academic level, while age, gender language were weakly associated with attitudes. The study of Webster and Fisher (2000), revealed that rural and urban students attitude in mathematics and career aspiration, positively affected their performance. Alternat, Momoa, Indoshi, and Olhuon (2000) found that students’ attitude changes could be predicted and influenced by types of classmates. The students’ attitude towards an academic subject is a crucial factor in learning and achievement in that subject may be an important factor in his or her academic achievement.
According to Schieber (2000) those who have positive attitude towards mathematics have a better performance but did not consider students attitude. Kamla-Raj (2009), in his study of students performance in Junior Secondary Mathematics found out that student poor performance in mathematics in junior secondary school examination was high, male students performed better than female, students from rural schools performed better than students from urban schools in mathematics, and also students from private schools performed better than students from public schools.
Furner and Duffy (2002) found out that, the effect of math anxiety where felt more among students with inadequate high school mathematics backgrounds and that mathematics anxiety was related to low mathematics achievement test scores and high level of test anxiety.
2.2. Teachers Professional Qualification
A teacher is expected to be competent before teaching a particular subject. The purpose of mathematics teacher education is to provide good teachers to teach mathematics and related courses. Teachers do not only need understanding of the subject they are teaching, but also need some understanding of the structure of mathematics and why the learning of mathematics is important. Most pupils perform poorly in mathematics because of inadequate mathematics teachers in our primary school system. A number of studies have examined the ways in which teachers highest qualifications correspond positively with students’ achievement for instance.
Betts, Zau and Rice (2003), found that when teachers have an advanced degree in their teaching subjects, it will have a positive impact on the students achievement. Thomas and Raechelle (2000), suggested that several other studies in the teacher preparation research have also shown a positive connection between teachers subject majors and students achievement in mathematics. Wilson and Floden (2003), found that students of mathematics teachers with mathematics education degrees demonstrate higher academic achievement in mathematics. However, they also indicated that there might be a limit at which more mathematics knowledge does not help the teacher. Darling-Hammond (2000), found that one having a major in his/her teaching subject was the most reliable predicator of students achievement score in mathematics and science.
Welinghsky (2000) said that mathematics teachers having a major in mathematics correlated with higher students’ achievement in mathematics. However, a number of studies found years of experienced to positively correlate with students achievement for example, Betts Zau and Rice (2003 found that teachers experience significantly correlates with students achievement in mathematics. A report by the Center for Public Education (2005) stated that research has been consistent in finding positive correlation between teaching experience and higher student achievement. Rivkin, Hanushek and Kain (2005), showed that students of experienced teachers achieved better that students of new teachers (those with one to three years of experience).
Similarly, Rosenholts (1989), quoted in Darling-Hammond (2000), and Hawkins, Stancavage, and Dossey (1998) found teaching experience to be related to students achievement but that the relationship may not be linear, students ofteachers who have fewer years of experience (less than 5 years) has lower levels of mathematics achievement but there were no difference in mathematics achieving among students whose teachers had more than five years of experience the implication of that is that the benefit of experienced level of after five years of experience. The curve-linear effect according to Darling-Hammond (2006) could be because older teachers do not continue to grow and learn and may grow tired of their jobs. It has been revealed that teachers’ professional development affects pupils’ performance in mathematics because teachers develop new knowledge, skills, approaches and disposition to improve their effectiveness in their classroom.
Cohen and Hill (2001) found that teachers whose professional development focused directly on the curriculum they would be teaching are the ones that adapted practice they were taught in the professional development interventions and that their students did well on assessment. Similarly, Garet (2001), found that when teachers’ professional development is linked directly to their daily experiences and aligned with standard and assessment they would be more likely to change their instructional practice and gain greater subject matter knowledge and improved teaching skills.
Other researchers have shown the usefulness of teaching practice and its influence on pupils’ academic performance in mathematics. Wenglinsky (2002), in his study, about the relationship between teaching practice and students’ academic achievement, reported that teaching practice are important causes of students learning and achievement. Also, that regardless of the level of preparation students brings into the classroom (e.g. student socio-economic status), teachers teaching practice can either greatly, facilitate students learning practices play an important role in student cognitive development. Bransford, Brown and Cocking (1999), indicated that there are ways students are taught a subject such as mathematics that makes it possible for the majority of students to develop a deep understanding of important subject matter.
Similarly, the research finding of Grouus and Cebulla (2000) on improving students achievement in mathematics showed that certain teaching practices (like while class teaching, whole class discussion and cooperative group work) are worth careful consideration as teachers strike to improve their mathematics teaching practice. Hafner, (1993); Grouu, and Cebulla (2000); Ingvarson (2004), found that teaching practices that generate high opportunity to learn are related to high achievement in mathematics. Opportunity to learn refers to equitable conditions or circumstances within the school or classroom that promote learning for all students. It includes the provision of adequate instructional experience that enables students to achieve high standards.
Brewer (2000) examined data on the post-secondary degrees and certification status of teachers and their students’ performance in mathematics and science. He observed a positive relationship between teachers’ degrees and students’ performance in mathematics consistent with earlier findings. He also found that students whose teachers were certified in mathematics but did not hold a post perform as well as students whose teachers held a post-secondary degree in mathematics.
2.3. The use of Teaching aids (Instructional Materials)
Teaching aid enhance the memory level of students. At this time, education has spread wide and the entirely oral teaching cannot be the key to success they pedagogy; therefore, the teacher has to use instructional materials to make the teaching-learning process interesting. In view of this, Oladejo, Olosunde and Isola (2011) in their study of instructional materials and those in the conventional instruction. Thus, the students taught with improvised instructional materials obtained the highest achievement score at posttest (F=74.94), followed by those with standard instructional materials (F=63.07), while the control group scored the lowest (F=63.89).
Meremikwu and Obinna (2010), in their study of instructional aids, school variables and pupils achievement in primary schools, found that pupils’ mathematics achievement was significantly dependent on the treatment, school type, all the interactions of the treatment, gender, school type and school location were statistically significant in planning pupils mathematics achievement. They also found that in urban areas, pupils in the experiment group in private schools achieved significantly higher than their counterparts in the public schools. Esu (2006), attributed the pupils poor performance in mathematics to factors such as: the notion among pupil that mathematics in an abstract and difficult subject, inadequate qualified teachers to teach the subject as specialist, improper method of teaching mathematics, lack of mathematics laboratory, insufficient instructional aids and poor use of instructional materials. Basically, the goals of teaching mathematics, especially at the primary level is prepare to develop critical and creative outlook as they confront the challenges of daily life.
Meremikwu (2008), thus for the teaching of mathematics to be meaningful, teaching must exist at the concrete operational level. By the nature of children, they need a large number of and variety of educational or instructional resources to interest with children at the primary level like to explore, experiment, create and interact intensively with the environment. The use of copious types of instruction for effective learning of the subject. Okoyeocha (2005), in a comparative study of public and private schools in Nigeria found that public schools were better equipped than their private counterparts. The location of the school could also influence the level of academic achievement of pupils. Anne and Obinna (2010), in their study, showed that on the average pupils in private schools taught with instructional materials perform significantly better than their counterpart in public schools.
Eluwa (2005), also noted in his research that there are higher mathematics averages score for private schools than their counterparts in public schools. It is worth noting that private schools in Nigeria have more effective and efficient supervisory capacity than public schools. There has been a boom in enrolment into private schools in Nigeria as the public school system appears to have bowed to political and economic pressures. Onasanya and Omosewo (2012), in their research on effect of improvised and standard instructional materials on secondary school students’ academic performance in physics found the following:
1.There was significantly difference between the students taught with standard instructional materials and those taught with improvised instructional materials i.e mean scores on the post test (+=4.09’ df 14, P=0.05).
2.There was no significant difference between the post test of scores of the experimental group and control group. This shows that the improvised instructional materials in the comparison of the male mean scores of experimental and control groups were the same entry level with regards to academic ability.
Ogunleye (2000); Okonkwo (2000); Mkpanang (2005) and Obioha (2006) reported that there were inadequate resources for the teaching of science subjects in secondary schools in Nigeria. They further stated that where there was inadequate resources for the teaching of science subjects in secondary school in Nigeria. They further stated that where were little resources at all, they are not usually in good conditions, while the few that were in good condition were not enough to go round those needed them. Hence there is need for improvisation. Obioha (2006) and Ogunleye (2000) revealed that there is a significant difference in the achievement of students taught using standard instructional materials, those with improvised instructional materials and those in the conventional instruction.
Omosewo (2008) and Akinsola (2010), considered the human factors as the teachers professional commitments, are activity, mechanical skills, initiative and resourcefulness. They found that many of Nigerian science teachers were of possibility of improvisation. They also noted that very few teachers practice improvise while majority depend on imported equipment and claim that improvisation is time-consuming and fund depleting. Onasanya (2008), noted that improvisation demands adventures, creativity, curiosity and perseverance on the part of the teacher. The author added that such skills are only realizable through well planned training programmes on improvisation.
Bassey (2002) describes instructional media as system components that maybe used as part of instructional processes which are used to disseminate information, message and ideas or which make possible communication in the teaching-learning process. Experience over the years has shown that teachers have been depending on excessive use of words to express, to convey ideas or facts in the teaching-learning process. This practice is termed the “chalk-talk” method. Today, advances in technology have made it possible to produce materials and devices that could be used to minimize the teachers talking and at the same time, make the message clearer, more interesting and easier for the learners to assimilate.
Onasanya (2008). Graphic include charts, posters, sketches, cartoons, graphs and drawings. Graphics communicate facts and ideas clearly through combination of drawings, words and pictures. The use of graphics in teaching creates definitiveness to the materials being studied. They help to visualize the whole concepts learned and their relationship with one another. The role of graphic materials in visual communication in both unique and
significant.
2.4. Parental Involvement
The ability of parents and guardian to audit their children/ward performance in school is very important role because it helps pupils to build themselves up. Since education begins from home, it will be pertinent for parents to show serious concern over their children performance in school. Parents can assist their children in home works or assignments, paying his school fee early, watch them over keeping bad friends and even monitor that they read and study at home.
In view of this, Gianzero (2001), opined that the term “parent involvement” includes several different forms of participation in education and with schools. He further stated that parents can support their children’s schooling by attending school functions and responding to school obligation like parent-teacher conferences. They can further or become more involved in helping their children improve their school work by providing encouragement, arranging for appropriate study time and space, modelling desired behaviours (such as reading for pleasure), monitoring homework and actively tutoring their children at home. He went further to say that outside home, parents can serve as advocates for the school they can volunteer to help out with school activities or work in the classroom or they can take an active role in governance and decision making necessary for planning, developing an education for community children.
Gianzero (2001) reported that family practices of involvement are as or more important either and how students’ progress and succeed in school. No one is more than parents in sending signals that reading and education matter and that schools work is not a form of drudgery but a ticket to a better life. By encouraging their children as assisting on home work, parents can set example for their children, which powerful and positive. Gianzero (2001) asserted that when families work together with schools to support learning, children tend to succeed not just in school but throughout life.
Utah Education Association (2008), the cultivation of string family-school linkages is increasingly and widely viewed as an essential component of strategies to improve students’ educational outcomes. While researchers acknowledge a strong direct relationship between socio-economic status (SES) and academic achievement. They also claimed that motivated families regardless of their (SES) can help their children improve school performance through several types of involvement. Research documenting the effects of parental involvement at home and in school concludes that differences in the achievement levels of working class and middle-class children is more explained by the nature of child-parents and parent-school interactions than by characteristics of socio-economic status (SES).
Fan and Chen (2001), in their research showed that parental involvement in their children’s learning positively affects the child academic performance. Melhinsh, Sylvia, Sammons, Siray, and Toggard (2001) discovered that parental involvement in children learning leads to higher academic achievement, greater cognitive competences, greater problem-solving skills, greater school enjoyment, better school attendance and fewer behavioural problems at school. Berkely parent Network (2009), asserted that private schools vary widely and the level of parental involvement varies from one parent to the other. What is important is for parents to choose private schools that has characteristics that match with what they are looking for. As a family, parents pay for the cost of educating their children in private schools and therefore tend to become more involved in dictating what the school offer than parents whose children are attending public schools.
Agbatokin (2009), Macmillian (2000) also reported that parental involvement on public school is a strong determinant of school performance as measured by students’ scores in achievement test. Thus, the influence of parents in educational process of their children, the importance of parental involvement cannot be over emphasized to make this completely meaningful, both parents should be involved. Gianzero (2001); Olatoyin and Ogunkola (2008) experts in the field agree about the importance of linkages between families and schools. However, researchers in developing countries should now begin to emphasize the need for more rigorous study to help educator s predict the precise outcome of implementing particular strategies for involving families in children education.
2.5. The Head Teacher and his Administration
The performance of a school is appraised against the person and leads and administers it. The head teacher administration can cause the poor performance of pupils in mathematics and may also cause the improved standards of pupils’ performance in mathematics. Leithwood, Seashore Louis and Washstorm (2004) make two important claims. First, leadership is second only to classroom instructional among all school-related factors that contributes to what students learn at school. Second leadership effects are usually largest where and when they are needed most. It was suggested that leaders who set a clear sense of direction have the greatest impact. If these leaders help to develop among their staff members a shared understanding of the organization and its goals and activities, this understanding becomes the basis for a sense of purpose of vision.
They effective principals understand direction setting. They know that an investment of time is required to develop a shared understanding of what the school should look like and what needs to be done to get there. They know that teachers and other staff included in identifying goals are much more likely to be motivated to achieve those goals. Wekesa (2003) noted that to improve students’ performance, head teachers are realized first to improve the management of the school. This can be done by setting a clean vision for the schools and communicate their vision to students, support its achievement by giving instructional leadership, resources and being visible even part of the institution that account for students performance. Millet (2006) explains that research and inspection clarify the extent to which quality leadership is crucial to improvement. In highly effective schools as well as schools which revealed a trend of poor performance and declining achievement. It is the head teacher who set the pace leading and motivating pupils and staff to perform to their highest potentials.
According to Cotton (2003), extensive studies demonstrate that particular leadership styles of schools leaders could have positive impact on teaching and learning environments and processes leading to improvement in pupils’ performance and academic achievement. According to Sushia (2004), the head teacher is the leader in a school, the pivot around which aspect of the school revolves and the person in charge of every detail of the running of the school be it academic or administrative. The head teacher should be involved in making most of the decision of the school. It is therefore important that the head teacher is a leader, a thinker and a decision maker. A discrete head teacher will employ team work as a working strategy, he will set up committees and smaller groups of members to staff to investigate ideas and strategies.
Leithwood, Seashore Louis, Anderson and Walshstorm (2004) reviewed that researchers are paying close attention to what is being termed a leader’s emotional intelligence. His/her ability and willingness to be tuned to employees as people. Recent evidence suggest that emotional intelligence displayed, for example through a leader’s personal attention to an employee enthusiasm and optimism, reduces, frustration, transmit a sense of mission and indirectly increases performance of pupils. Riddle (2005), principals can modify organizational structures, for instance by changing schedule to ensure that teachers share common planning time, use time to discuss improving instruction.
Wekesa (2003); Cotton (2003); Gama (2006); Gentilucci and Muto (2007), has asserted that the following types of behaviour by a head teacher have significant impact on students achievement. The establishments of a clear focus on students learning by having a vision and high expectation for learning for all students interaction and cordial relationship with relevant stakeholders with community interaction, emotional and interpersonal support visibility and accessibility and parent/community participation; developing a school culture, conducive to teaching and learning through shared leadership and decision making, collaboration, risk taking leadership through discussion of instructional issues, observing classroom teaching and giving feedback, supporting teacher autonomy and protecting instructional time; and being accountable for affecting and supporting continuous improvement through monitoring progress and using progress data for programme improvements.
Leithwood, Seashore and Wahlstorm (2004) concluded that the contribution of leadership is second in strength only to classroom impact where it is most needed in the nation’s challenged schools. In addition, they cite the need for expanded study of how leadership in other areas of the school community such as teachers’ leadership can contribute to student achievement.
Leithwood and Riel (2003); Day (2004); Harri (2004); Hale and Rollins (2006); Gurr, Drysdale and Mulford (2006); Rubertson and Miller (2007); Cuskey (2007); Gentiluccu and Muto (2007), opined that it is clear that the school leadership provided and/or shared by a school administrator is one of the key factors in enhancing school performances and students achievements. The school performances and students achievement. The school leaders in this context are “those persons occupying various roles in the school, who work with others to provide direction and exert influence on person and things in order to achieve the school goals”. Harris (2004) asserts that successful leadership in schools have resulted in higher levels of both students’ attainment and achievement. Emphasizing the importance of distributed leadership he also points that findings from the studies have identified the limitation of a singular leadership approach in securing school improvements.
Gamage (2009) asserts that it is necessary for a principal to understand who he/she stands along the leadership continuum in leading and managing a school towards improving students’ performance. For this purpose, a head teacher of his position including: (a) the aims and goals which his/her school is attempting to achieve; (b) the means or the resources available to achieve these goals (c) the degree of freedom delegated to him/her by the employing authority to innovate or modify existing educational methods and procedures in order to achieve these goals (d) the legal, tradition and person vested in the role of the principal (e) the constant and boundaries likely to limit school based decision (f) the extent of the head teacher responsibility and accountability for funding, staffing and administration of the school.
2.6. Environmental Influence
Environment as a factor has a vital role to play in the academic performance of pupils. A child who grows up in an emotionally unsound environment might not likely do well in school. Craig (2009), asserted that focus on the pupils’ entire academic experience has led to a greater emphasis on their daily life activities and facilities. In response, many campuses are renovating, expanding or creating new buildings that support life. National and local officials are recognizing that school facilities, the physical buildings are important to their programme success. Mahone (1999) and Vaughua (2008), emphasize that more than other building types, school facilities, whose primary function is teaching and learning, have a profound impact on their occupants. They believe that the design and layout of school facilities should possess features that will aid learning and teaching environment should be taken into consideration in various stages of development.
National Academics Press (2006), argued that regardless of the school configuration, children need a healthful and stimulating environment in which to learn, primary schools should be comfortable visually, acoustically and thermally they should have excellent indoor air quality and they should be safe and sound. White (2001), concluded that the following aspects of the home environment had a greater impact than socio-economic status (SES) on students school performance; parents attitude, guidance and expectation for their children’s education; participating in cultural learning-related activities; and overall stability in the home.
Gutierrez (2004), reveals that a competitive study environment in the academically above average schools may even enhance better social relationship among the students and more involvement in their studies. Defines (2005) referred to this type of indirect association as “genetic mediations” of all the environment. Parents willing to spend extra money to place their child in a private school may be more supportive and have higher academic expectations than parents with children in public schools. Coll (2001), argued that the poor academic performance of children is caused by their families’ lack of experience, services or financial resources to purchase educational materials.
According to Franger (2008); and Singh (2002), technology is at the centre of the modern educational process, especially for mathematical and analytical skills. Computers in classrooms are very important tools such as; the internet allow the smooth exchange of information between students and machine buy must be positioned and used in environment that do cause distraction increasingly students can learn through virtual classroom when no teacher is available. Comfortable surrounding and this form a learning, and children in this type of environment tends to do better in mathematics and other subjects.
2.7. Government/Political Factors
One of the objective of the National Policy on Education is to produce people who are self-reliant, technologically and scientifically. How can this be achieved without emphasis in mathematics which it has fallen short of? In other words, there is poor designed programme, poor planning and hence, general poor performance in mathematics. In view of this, Idiaghe (2004), showed that numbers of primary schools in Nigeria increased from
48, 552 with total enrolment 17, 907,008 and 1989 to 59,154 with total enrolment of 25,705,969 in 2003. On the relationship between educational resources and students’ academic performance, it was concluded that teachers qualification and hence availability or non-availability of facilities in schools affect the academic performance of students.
A research submission by FGN/UNESCO/UNDP (2003), noted that over the last two decades, the management of primary education had been experiencing some problems as a result of policy gaps in Nigeria. Schools were not well-maintained and facilities were not adequately provided arising from the fact that management of primary education was used as political football between state government, local government and federal government. Durosaro (2005), opined that effective management of primary school was identified unresolved due to lack of accurate and timely data and this had directly affected the issue of policy formulation.
Oghwubu (1999) pointed that management problems in primary schools such as inadequate preparation of teachers’ lack of instructional supervision, change of curriculum, geographic location of schools and the type of supervising climate in schools feat are traceable to decline in the performance experience in schools. Okoh (1998), argued that many of the problem is identified stem from the inadequacy of funding for primary education and that resources are still not being made available to build and maintain the necessary infrastructure and provide essential educational materials. Report by World Bank (2003), on issues relating to management of primary schools facilities, it reflected the importance of adopting the basic elements of management such as planning, organizing, directing, staffing, coordinating, budgeting for and reported in primary educational system.
Ajayi and Faremi (2006), reported that most parents and guardian in Nigeria currently prefer sending their children and wards to private primary schools where fees are paid as against the public primary schools that are tuition free. Ironically, the indigent parents who are supposed to take the advantage of the free education obtainable in public primary schools also join the vogue of sending their children to private primary schools. Adekola (2004), gave two speculative reasons why private primary schools have better oral grammatical expression, that those in the public primary school, and second, most private primary schools have to convey their pupils to and fro schools. Ladosu (2006) noted that many parents regard it as a prestige, sending their children to fees paying institution since no parent would like to be tagged poor.
According to Ajayi and Faremi (2006), many parents and guardians withdraw their children and wards from public schools to enrol them in private schools due to incessant strikes by teachers in public schools, the factor which consider as inimical to the educational development of the pupils. Adamaechi and Ramanie (2000) proper planning has been found to be a root of the success of every good educational policy programme. Without proper planning, the best programme is bound to fail, especially in mathematics which needs scientific and manipulative knowledge.
The punch magazine (2008) also stated that the unity of schools debate exposed the un-seriousness in planning the primary education. Over the years, the government have not been properly funded the primary schools by providing all the necessary equipment and facilities needed in our primary schools which has resulted to students performing poorly in mathematics. The punch magazine (2008) also stated that the educational budget is a far cry for the limited nations educational scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO) 20% recommended indicating that the primary programme is yet to experience it full peak in spite of efforts put in by the students.
According to Sulaiman (2008), said that government politicized the recruitment of teachers which brought about the disqualified ones that we have in our primary schools, that is why you find out that the pupils who attends private primary schools are able to acquire qualitative education because there, everybody care and there is strict supervision. Nwagwu (2000) saw poor planning by the government as one of the problems responsible for the unsuccessful implementation of the UBD programme in Nigeria. Joshua (2003) opined that why pupils perform poorly in our primary schools especially in mathematics in because government have not been motivating the teachers who teach these students.
2.8. Parents Socio-economic status (SES and Pupils Performance)
The educational, financial, economic and societal status of a parent has an important role to play in educating a child. A child brought up from an educationally or financially unsound home may not likely do well because no-reading materials, no one gives and provide advice when needed etc. and an illiterate parents cannot be involved in the education of their children; he cannot read, write and even spell correctly. How do you expect such a parent to solve assignment for their children? But a middle-class family can provide necessary school fees needed, get good books for their children and even send them to better schools. They can contribute in doing their home works, assignments and can get involved in their children education which will bring a change in their performance either mathematical or otherwise.
According to Casanova, Garcia-linares, Torre and Carpio (2005), environmental influence such as hunger homelessness, sickness, physical and mental disabilities, violence, teen parenthood, family stress and educational failure combined with family influence that contributes to student academic success. If a student has not eaten in days, and has clothes that don’t fit, how can he/she be expected to maintain focus in a classroom? Children coming from poverty are not provided the same tools as the wealthy; they are entering schools behind those not living in similar conditions. Research suggests that problems start with the parents and their lack of education and understanding of the needs of children (Li-Grinning, 2007).
According to Harris (2007), low poverty schools are 22 times more likely to reach consistently high academic achievement compared with high poverty schools. There are many factors that are attributed to poor success rate in low income schools. Many schools remain segregated accordingly to socio-economic status (SES). Desegregated schools have higher achievement for higher poverty students. Machtinger (2007), schools with high population of low income students often provide a curriculum experience. High poverty schools have far fewer qualified teachers and lose the ones they do not have at a greater rate than low poverty schools. A student in a high poverty school can have up to a 50% greater chance of being taught by an inexperienced teacher than a student in a low poverty school.
Christle and Jovilette (2007) opined that socio-economic status is one of the main factors that contribute to drop-out rates. She maintained that there is a strong relationship between socio-economic status and the dropout rate. With students from low income families being 2.4 times more likely to drop out of high school than middle-income students. Students of low socio-economic status frequently attend schools with a high dropout rate which increases the chances that they will dropout as well.
Van Dorn, Bowen, andBlau (2006) also suggest that it is to just those who live in urban areas from low income household that are risk to dropout, but also those who live in rural area from low socio-economic status. “Prior academic achievement”. Family patterns have an effect on dropout rate. This that if a student struggles and earn poor grades early in their academic career they will have more of a chance of dropping out in high school. Furthermore, if a student has a sibling who has dropped out of high school, they are at an increased risk of dropping out. To them, research on high school has shown school size to impact educational outcomes: smaller schools often between 600 and 900 students provide a better context for learning.
Smith (2006), low socio-economic status not only affects dropout rates but it affects parental involvement in a student’s involvement in a child’s education, there is more of likelihood that the student will not succeed. When parents are not involved or interested in his/her children education, there is a greater chance that the child will not be interested in his or her own education. This directly affects whether or not the students will finish school. It is not uncommon to see little parental involvement in the education of children from low income households. This in turn leads to an increase in behavioural problems.
Domina (2005) parental involvement does not independently improve behavioural problems. Interactions analysis suggests that the involvement of parent with low socioeconomic status may be more effective than that of parents with high socio-economic status. He further suggests parental involvement as not only helping with homework but also becoming involved and active in other aspect of a child’s education. He further state that Academic achievement requires both student and parent involvement. Ornstein (2006) opined that students who live in property-rich areas will have far more resources in their school than those who live in poverty poor areas.
In a study by Andre, Aubry, Battista and Passero (2012), on socio-economic status and education observed that affluent, suburban students is particularly vulnerable to anxiety and depression related to academic pressure and isolation from parents. In addition, these findings further demonstrates that the psychological adjustment problems of this group of students manifest themselves in higher incidence of substance abuse and academic dishonesty as compared with the national norm.
Similarly, Taylor (2002) studied the cheating behaviour of elite high school students through semi-structured interview responses from students considered to be in the top 10% of their class. Students reported pressure from competition for class rank as the most common reason for cheating. The school environment perpetuates this competitive environment by placing emphasis on individual ability and class rank. Students feels that this puts students against one another and places. Total responsibility for achievement on the student. And that majority of students also experienced parental pressure to succeed. Some reported parent withholding affection when students’ grades did not meet parental expectations. Other students reported parental pressures to obtain scholarship in order to afford the tuition of a prestigious institution.