RATE, IMPLICATION AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO EXAMINATION MALPRACTICES AMONG SCIENCE STUDENTS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
Conceptual Framework
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Examination
The periodic testing and measurement of students after acquisition of experience is known as examination (Efe, cited in Olushola, 2006).
In educational systems, world over, the examination process makes the difference in the actualization of the goals of education, Nwadiani (2005:2) asserted that “the goals of national educational systems and indeed national development become like mirage if examination ethics is not encouraged and instituted”. Examination is one of the major means of assessing and evaluating students’ skills, knowledge and attitude in both general and specific areas of studies.
Olatunbosun (2009:101) noted that “till date, examinations still remain the best tool for an objective assessment and evaluation of what learners have achieved after a period of schooling”. Therefore, any action that undermines examinations poses a great threat to the validity and reliability of examination results and certification.
Unfortunately, the process of examination in Nigerian secondary schools has become a “contemporary shame” according to Nwadiani (2005:3). This of course is due to the phenomenon of examination malpractice that has become endemic in the educational system.
The examination therefore, lies at the heart of any academic exercise. Its natural tendency is to establish a meritocracy in which power, earnings and status depend, to a high degree, on education and passing of examinations. This may explain why, for example, public examinations conducted by examination bodies such as the West African Examination Council (WAEC), National Examination Council (NECO), Joint Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB) and Interim Joint Matriculation Board (IJMB) assume a tremendous importance. That is why teachers and students spend a great amount of time on those topics they expect to appear in a given examination. Students on the other hand utilised all means, right and wrong, available to them to ensure that they passed their examinations. Examinations are conducted in schools year in, year out. Although the period of examinations brings a lot of anxieties to students all over the world, it is an integral part of our educational system and there can be no short cut to it.
Examination is the pivotal point around which the whole system of education revolves and the success or failure of the system of examination is indeed an indicator of the success or failure of that particular system of education (Olushola, 2006). Examinations vary in style, rigour and requirements. For example, in a closed book examination, an examinee is often required to rely upon memory to respond to certain items, where as in open book examination, the examinee may use one or more supplementary tools such as reference books or calculators. Examination may be administered formally or informally. An example of a formal examination is the final examination administered by a teacher in the class room while informal examination would be a reading examination administered by a parent to a child. Similarly, standard examinations are scored in consistent manner while non-standard examinations are usually flexible in scope and format. Examination could be in written form, multiple choice, completion type, essay, true/false, mathematical question, or performance test. Olushola further submitted that the two basic assumptions of any examination worth its name are that (a) it should be valid and (b) it should be reliable. The two are distinct concepts. An examination is said to be valid if it performs the functions which it is designed to perform while the concept of reliability, refers to consistency of measurement. In actual fact, the prevailing system of examination and its mode of conduct defy both these assumptions. The system has degenerated to an extent that its validity and reliability are questionable.
Olushola went further to state that undoubtedly, standards of performance at examinations have declined considerably within the past ten years or there about. So also has every sector of the societal development in the country. The most disturbing aspect of it all is the participation or involvement of school administrators, parents/guardians, and examinations personnel in examination malpractice. The rampant private and special centres for external examination like JAMB, WAEC and NECO are clear manifestations of the involvement of non- school administrators in the perpetration of examination malpractice. A former Nigerian President, Obasanjo, sighted Olushola, (2006) stated that by 2010 if educationists and stakeholders did not pay adequate attention on the re-orientation and re-channelling of the youth at the post-primary schools to a more acceptable and drastic reduction in examination malpractices, the nation’s educational standard is bound to rot in pains. How one comes to acquire knowledge, what one comes to know and why such knowledge is possible is a function of cognitively learning in schools, said Mbanefo (1998). As it is known that learning goes hand in hand with malpractice and misconduct in Nigeria and other parts of the world, the students’ cognition is derailed and it is gradually killing the society.
Purposes of Examination
Examination can provide information about an individual, student or group of students, a school (in terms of whether it is performing according to expectation), or about educational system (in terms of whether or not the set objectives are being met), (Alhassan, 2006; Oyetunde, 2004). The examination lies in the centre of any educational enterprise as it serves three main purposes:
i) Measuring competence or achievement in a given field of endeavour.
ii) Helping predict future success and also assisting in selection purposes.
iii) As an activity, providing incentives to learning, (Aboki, 2000).
Examination and education are inseparable, for the efficiency and quality of an educational system is usually determined through the performance of its products in an examination or a set of examinations. The examination therefore, influences what is taught and learned in schools, especially when the results of the examinations are used to make important decisions on achievement, selection and placement purposes.
In Nigeria, examinations therefore, become a fulcrum for determining promotion from one level to another and the acquisition of certificates which consequently determine the future occupational career of a student or candidate. The examination therefore, becomes a “do or die” affair. Oyetunde (2004) stressed that examinations exert a very powerful influence on the educational system, on what is taught or how it is taught, and they determine how far students can go in their academic pursuits and job aspirations. Capper (1996) also posited that “entire families‟ lives can be influenced by a child‟s performance on an examination because that performance can constrain or expand future employment possibilities for the child”.
In this sense, the examination becomes a social issue, a public concern. This high stake associated with examination induces desperation in students to the extent of wanting to do anything and everything to ensure success. All stakeholders in educational planning have a responsibility to influence positively on how examinations are administered.
Examination Malpractice
Olushola, (2006) stated that examination malpractice is an unlawful behaviour or activity engaged in by students to have personal advantage in an examination over their colleagues or mates who are taking the same examination. Malpractice could be committed before, during or after the examination by either the students taking the examination or by officials assigned with the administration of the examination. Dike (1996) from the psychological point of view saw examination malpractice as all forms of cheating which directly or indirectly falsify the ability of the students. It refers to counter practice that is against the ethics of examination. It is also an act of disrespect to all rules and regulations guiding the good conduct of any examination or any evaluation process.
Examination malpractice is an act or arrangement from which an examinee is programmed to derive illegal and illicit advantage over and above other candidates (students) in respect of some given examinations. Onokerhoraye (1993) and Maduabum (2001) defined it as „an improper practice carried out before, during or after any examination by an examinee(s) or others with a view to obtaining good results‟. Malpractice therefore, is the use of unconventional behaviour or methods before, during and after examination to aid, assist and attain desired success in examination.
It should, however be noted that examination cheating behaviour has for a long time been a global predicament. The Chinese who introduced the concept of examination for her civil servants were apparently aware of the tendency to cheat. So they took security measures of searching testees vigorously before they enter the examination hall (Holmess & Lauwerys, 1969).
In citing Soyele, Olushola (2006) stressed that examination malpractice is not a new phenomenon in Nigeria, as well as other parts of the world. The first examination malpractice in Nigeria was reported in 1914, when there was a leakage of question paper of the Senior Cambridge Local Examination. The most pronounced malpractice in Nigeria in early examinations was that of 1964 that was tagged “Expo” and subsequently in 1970, 1973, 1974, 1979, 1981, 1988 and 1991 Olushola, cited by Oladope, (1997). Olushola went further to use the words of a former Nigerian President, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, who said that students in the country perceived education as a means of getting a meal ticket and getting a job. The President further argued that this perception or orientation must change so that students would appreciate the intrinsic value of education, which is the total development of the individual to be able to make meaningful contributions to the family, community and the country at large.
Onyechere (2007) noted in the Annual Examinations Ethics Report that examination malpractice in the country had worsened. He stated that examination malpractice had graduated from acts involving students to ‘an organized crime controlled by syndicates with links in education ministries, examination boards and education institutions’. The report disclosed that the National Examination Malpractice Index, (EMI), a measure for examination breaches, increased from 6.9% in 2005 to 7.2% in 2006, representing an increase of 0.3% in one year. The report further showed that Borno State led in the North-East with an EMI of 17.26%; Abia State led in the South-East with an EMI of 15.11% while Bayelsa State led in the South-South with 12.10%. Others were Lagos State in the South-West, 11.95%, Benue State in the North-Central with an EMI of 8.22% and Kaduna in the North-West with 5.21%.
Examination Malpractice is caused by a number of factors all related to moral decadence in Nigeria. Some candidates find that cheating, dishonesty; including embezzlement and stealing of public funds and property do not attract the condemnation and punishment they deserve and therefore see nothing wrong with those bad virtues. Jibril (1991) in a contribution on incidence of examination malpractice in society, admitted that it is a reflection of the moral decadence of our country. Jibrin supported this by seeing examination malpractice as one of the features of a society that nurtures cheats and mediocre and turns them into celebrities. A lot of unemployed graduates and undergraduates see examination period as an avenue for making money. Some of them refer to the period of WASSCE and other similar examinations as ‘harvest time’. (Newswatch Magazine May 19, 2008).
In the Eastern part of Nigeria, the activities of hooligans which include, gaining entry into examination halls by force as examinations are in progress to remove question paper, is another worrisome development. Dare (1994) identified plagiarism as a form of examination malpractice and subscribed that perpetrators of it should be investigated and punished in the same way as cheating in the examination hall. Plagiarism is the use of another person's work without appropriate acknowledgement both in the text and in the references at the end of the work. Dare further added that other forms of plagiarism include: writing of project(s), carrying out laboratory
analysis or writing report on behalf of a student(s) by a member of staff, co-student or anybody. While we keep waiting on more unknown methods of examination malpractice, stakeholders must hold their heads high to fight this menace headlong.
The concept of examination malpractices according to Jekayinfa (2006) is discussed thus:
Dishonesty Before Examination
A typical examination dishonesty that happens before an examination is conducted, which is the most serious and which undermines completely the integrity of the examination and also the entire purpose of the examination is the leakages of questions. This involves the granting of privy access to the content of an examination either directly to a candidate or a number of them or their agents. This is most serious in the sense that it renders all efforts irredeemably futile. In this age of Information Communication Technology, (ICT), this type of dishonesty can be pervasive, covering a very wide scope. This type of question leakages does not give room for rescue intervention because live questions are usually targeted by dishonest syndicates. It completely erodes the basis of certification, which is learning and character. It also falsely confers honour on those that are not all due for such honours. Leakages of examination questions can occur from a number of sources. In public examinations, the staff at the production site, who are responsible for the printing of examination questions, those who package examination materials and those who convey the question papers from the press to the centers have become sources of concern because many of them have been linked to matters of question leakages (Awanbor, 2006). In school examinations examiners, typists and messengers constitute a major source as questions are shared to favourable candidates for one kind of gratification or the other. The preparation of answers, which candidates bring to the examination hall, is majorly caused by the leakage of questions. Students who have privy knowledge of the examination, in addition to preparing answers on papers which they bring into the examination hall are known to write answer points on the convenient parts of the body, covered with their clothes. Questions leakage also can lead to student going to the examination venue ahead of the commencement of the examination to inscribe answers on desks or take vantage seats in order to be able to receive undue assistance in the course of the examination. When these types of candidates are caught in the act of cheating/dishonesty; it constitutes a breach of the examination.
Another practice that is also common is for school officials (principals or proprietors) to be active participants in examination dishonesty during public examination. They do this in several ways through creation of ‘Miracle Centers’ by school authorities who charge the students exorbitantly well above the recommended fees to secure the cooperation of some of the examination officials to compromise the examination. School authorities in some instances have contracted out their examination centers to touts who perpetrate unwholesome acts of compromise of the examination; e.g. hiring of subject specialists to solve leaked questions and these solutions are either dictated to the candidates in the examination hall, if they had all paid the exorbitant charges, or a selected group of candidates hidden away in a private secured room. School authorities, according to Awanbor (2006) are also known to have pooled money collected from students to desperately bootleg live questions from the production point. Leakages of examination questions have become a very deeply worrying phenomenon because the practices undermine the conduct of valid assessment of learning.
Dishonesty During Examination
Researchers and educationists like Adesina (2006), Awanbor (2006), Banwo (2006), Solake (1997), Olaniyan (1997), Olasehinde (1993), have written on a number of behaviors that are exhibited by students during examinations in order to cheat. Some of these activities are listed by Jekayinfa (2006) with the special names they are referred to by their perpetrators as follows:
Giraffing: This is an act of sticking out one’s neck to see another student’s answer sheet.
Abracadabra: It is a method common in rural schools. It is a magic term connoting the more you look, the less you see. The students will use spiritual power so that when they go to examination hall with ‘foreign material’, it will be seen by members of the class excluding only the invigilator. Also, they may use the same power to make the invigilator a living robot till the end of the examination.
Lateral Connection: This is a sitting arrangement whereby the “bright” student is seated in the center, flanked on both sides by other students.
Nothing-nothing: This involves the use of empty biro to trace information on a blank white piece of paper. Seeing this on the table, one would think there is nothing on the paper, but on closer observation, one would realize that the paper is well loaded with facts related to the examination.
Livewire: This is when students have access to live question paper before the examination.
Dubbing: This is when students copy in the examination hall either from their partner’s paper or the material they brought into the examination venue.
Contract: This is when a student’s grade is influenced with the assistance of a friendly teacher.
Tattoo: This is when a female/male student writes information on the tender part of his/her thigh where they can easily adjust to reveal the materials and can be cleared within a second when there is a problem (Samuel, 1995).
Rank Xeroxing: This is when a student collects and writes a colleague’s answer word for word.
Computo: This involves the use of calculators, which have facilities for multiple entries. The invigilator may not know that it has such facilities and may think it is an ordinary calculator.
Missile Catch: represents answers written on pieces of papers, squeezed and thrown to a colleague in the hall while the examination is going on.
Swapping: Exchanging answer booklets so that the bright student can write answers out for his/her colleague.
Tokens: Jotting points on the mathematical set, razor blades, rulers, hankies and others of the likes for referencing during examinations.
Sign Language: Using fingers and sounds as coded, for responses on objective tests.
Body Aids: Jotting points on the underwear, under dress or thighs for referencing during examination.
Mercenary Service: Employing the services of another student to write the examination.
Table Top: Writing anticipated answers on top of a desk before the commencement of examination.
CNN: Sharing questions and answers between a group for eventual connection in the examination hall.
Time Out: Going out to the ‘toilet’ to read up answers.
Direct Access: Examiner providing ‘HINTS’ to help out during examination.
Stroke: Pretending to be sick during examination to attract examiner’s sympathy while marking.
Post Examination Dishonesty
Examination Dishonesty is not limited to examination time only. A lot of activities go on at short, medium or long-term range from the moment of examination, which impinges on the integrity of an examination. The following are some of the ways cheating can take place after examination.
(a) Students tracing their scripts to the point of marking and seeking to and/ or successfully influencing their grades.
(b) Alteration of marks which is a case where the initial score earned by a student is altered in order to enhance the academic standing of the student.
(c) In public school examinations, some candidates even trace their results to the last point of call; that is the computer rooms where marks are stored for final processing and grading. Awanbor (2006) while elaborating on the wide spread nature and scope of post examination cheating, revealed that parents and/ or school examination authorities go cash in hand after examination have been written with the motive to influence the score of their wards. He remarked that in some cases, mark sheets are blatantly mutilated, the score altered to the bargained price and level in order to provide soft landing for the candidate in the quest for a brilliant certificate for selection into higher institution of learning.
(d) Swapping of answer scripts; the answers written by the examination mercenaries are smuggled into the examination hall and replaced with the actual scripts. This, according to Awanbor (2006), is the most violent means of dishonesty in an examination because of the unruly atmosphere created by the candidate and their agents to execute this plan.
However, many factors have been reported to be the causes for examination dishonesty in Nigerian schools. These had been discussed in various dimensions by researchers like Ipaye (1982), Adeyinka (1993), Olasehinde (1993), Adesina (2006) and Banwo (2006). All these causes have also been highlighted by Jekayinfa (2006) to include:
Pressure to obtain good grades, the fear of failure, unpreparedness by students, too much emphasis on paper qualification, desire to meet societal and parental expectations, accessibility to question papers, inadequate time and facilities for study, crowded work load, unannounced tests, poor instructions, lack of proper supervision, pressure by peers to cheat, poor course materials, inability to cope with school work, lack of understanding of questions, questions not relevant to topic taught, too difficult examination questions, lack of confidence in one’s ability, indolence of teachers and students, inadequate coverage of syllabus/course study, poor counseling services and influence of peer groups. In most of the studies conducted on examination malpractices in schools, there is a consensus that the two greatest causes of examination malpractice were and are still the fear of failure and too much emphasis, which thAccordind to Jekayinfa (2006) The Nigerian government, in order to curtail the trends of examination cheating in schools, has made some laws and these laws are:
(i) Decree 27 of 1973 on the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) which prescribed two years jail term for offenders.
(ii) Decree 20 of the 1984 amended by Decree 22 of 1986.
(iii) Decree 33 of 1999 which prescribed 21 years jail term for any offender.
All these penal codes made by the military have not been implemented. No offender on record is known to have been tried under any of these decrees. It has been observed that the decrees/laws are too draconian, UN-reformative and hence, UN-foreseeable. So, there is the need to curb examination cheating through some other ways like teaching of value education in Nigerian schools.e government and society attach to paper qualification.
Prevalence of Examination Malpractice
The history of examination malpractice in Nigeria is not recent. It dates back to the colonial era. According to Kpangban et al (2008), the first examination malpractice in Nigeria was reported in 1914, when there was a leakage of question paper in the Senior Cambridge examination. Since then, the incidence of examination malpractice has lasted long in the country. However, Onuka and Amoo (2011) noted that examination malpractice existed at minimal and in simple unsophisticated forms in the earlier years, but became more pervasive as from the 1970s. It must be noted that in the recent past, the incidence of examination malpractice was not limited to final examinations conducted by public examination bodies alone. It occurs in school assessment, and this is carried over to external examinations especially the ones conducted for certificates or for admission purposes.
The incidences of examination malpractice are common every where and every examination season witnesses the emergence of new and ingenious ways of cheating. The alarming rate of examination malpractice in secondary schools is witnessed in public examinations such as the Senior School Certificate examination (SSCE). Thus Oneychere (2004) noted that it is almost a routine for students to cheat in both internal and external examinations.
Examination malpractice in secondary schools also cuts across schools in all the geo-political zones of the country. In 2006, the Federal Ministry of education blacklisted and derecognized 324 secondary schools across the nation as centres for conducting public examinations from 2007 to 2010, due to their involvement in examination malpractice. The distribution of the schools that were involved according to Olatunbosun (2009:102) is shown below:
Zone No. of Schools involved %
North-Central 54 16.6
North-East 08 2.5
North-West 12 3.6
South-East 48 14.8
South-South 116 36.0
South-West 86 26.6
Total 324 100.00
This shows that examination malpractice occurs in all geographical zones in the country, with the south-south zone having the highest number of schools (116) involved, followed by the South-West zone with 86 schools. The North East zone has 8 schools which is the least in the six zones.
Causes of Examination Malpractice
Many reasons have been adduced to be the cause of the prevalent cases of examination malpractice. Petters & Okon (2013) identifies the causes to include fear of failure, craze for certificate, desire of parents to have their children in choice professions and university, pressure on students to pursue courses which they have no aptitude, pressure on teachers who want to gain favour of student and overcrowded sitting arrangement. George & Ukpong (2013) links the increasing rate of examination malpractice to poor teaching, ineffective preparation by students, ill-equipped library facilities, and dubious admission policy.
Akaranga & Ongong (2013) views the cause of examination malpractice to parental upbringing. They opined that because of social status and economic ability, most parents are easily persuaded to bribe their way through for the sole success of their children and self gratification. According to Ejimogu (2001) cited in Nsisong (2011), general moral decadence and the high premium placed on achievement and certificates by Nigerians has in recent times spawned examination fraud. The overdependence on educational certificates as a measure of ones knowledge and competence has led to a mad rush by most people for educational certificates through unethical means.
The disjunction between culturally acclaimed goals and the institutionalized means of achieving these goals coupled with the cultural context of great emphasis on success-goals without equivalent emphasis upon institutional means of attaining these goals have created an environment that predisposes some students, teachers, parents and others to examination malpractice, (Jimoh, 2009). The Nigerian society today is characterized by a heavy emphasis on success and wealth without a corresponding emphasis on legitimate means and avenues to be used in achieving the success. The country has become a commercial venture and no longer a place for selfless service.
The CWO Voice (2010) links examination malpractice to the following factors: rapid growth and demand for education in Nigeria, poor teaching and learning environment, lack of well equipped teachers who do not have the necessary pedagogy to impart the contents to the learners, lack of viable teaching materials/ equipment like standard laboratories, libraries and other things.
Effects of Examination Malpractice
The consequences of examination malpractice are many and enormous as both the nation and the individual have direct share of them. Examination malpractice is a social evil that can damage society. This is because according to Ogunkola (2011:4)
The quality of a nation’s manpower development is in direct proportion to the quality of its educational system. So a country with shaky and porous examination system will have very poor manpower, as the value of certificates obtained through malpractice in examinations will be worthless.
Examination malpractice therefore renders the goals of education invalid. The actualization of the goals of education will continue to be a mirage if the scourge of examination malpractice is not eradicated from the system. The country will end up producing graduates who lack the knowledge, skill and competence to exploit the resources of the nation. Besides, the graduates will lack the right type of values and attitude needed for survival in a globalized economy.
Examination malpractice also has some economic consequence. This is because, cancellation of results due to examination malpractice amounts to economic waste. For instance, Aminu (2006) noted that within a space of ten years alone, the West African examinations Council (WAEC) cancelled the result of 814,699 candidates in its May/June Examinations. Considering the cost of buying examination forms alone, this amounts to a waste of billions of Naira.
Examination malpractice leads to irreversible loss of credibility. A country that is noted for examination malpractice losses its international credibility. The implication is that documents emanating from such country will be treated with suspicion. Consequently, certificates awarded by such country’s educational institutions are disbelieved. Such country’s educational institutions are as good as dead as far as international cooperation in education is concerned.
The fight against corruption cannot succeed if examination malpractice is not eradicated in the educational system. As leaders of tomorrow who have gone through a school system characterized by academic fraud and dishonesty, the youths of the country will sow and nurture this fraudulent behaviour in any organization they find themselves. They are likely to continue to live a life of crime, fraud and corrupt practices. Since the consequences of examination malpractice are grave, it should be tackled with all seriousness.
Effects of Examination Malpractice on National Development
1. In a society that examination malpractice is predominant, its impact are visibly seen in the type of human resources the education system has produced. Again, educational system strives to inculcate high level of discipline, diligence, moral love for others; to the recipients where the examination is fraught with malpractice, all the important feedback mechanism becomes defaulted and the educational system becomes distorted, (The CWO Voice, 2010).
2. Examination malpractice leads to irreversible loss of credibility. A country that becomes notorious in examination malpractice loses international credibility. The implication is that documents or certificates emanating from such country will be treated with suspicion as is the case of Nigeria today. Such country’s educational institutions are as good as dead as far as international cooperation in education is concerned (Jimoh, 2009).
3. Examination malpractice has grave consequences on the individuals and institutions of learning, communities and the country at large. Dismissal, termination, loss of position, and lack of self-confidence are effects and have caused a lot of embarrassment and suffering to individuals, families and the nation. The guilty ones who were not caught and punished cannot defend the certificates procured not to talk of delivering at their duty posts.
4. The prevalent rate of bank failures, collapse of buildings, economic sabotage, vandalism, kidnapping/hostage taking for ransom, drug trafficking, fake drug manufacturing and sales are practical effects of moral decadence, emanating from examination malpractice. Effects of examination fraud are displayed in the filling stations, churches, homes, hospitals, markets and everywhere.
5. The fight against corruption cannot be realized if examination malpractice continues to be rampant in our educational system. As future leaders who have been equipped through a school system characterized by academic fraud and dishonesty, will certainly manifest this fraudulent behaviour in any organization they may found themselves. Those that cheated to pass examination will cheat to get employed, have spouse, and even to win election through electoral violence or other sharp malpractices.
6. Other effects of examination malpractice includes discouragement of students from hard work, low productivity and poor job performances, bribery, corruption, and certificate racketeering.
Examination malpractice with its disadvantages is affecting all the facets of the society negatively. The potentials of this nation will be difficult to be realized socially, economically, and technologically until the individuals, governments, and other stakeholders in the education sector collaborate to eradicate this malpractice.
Efforts made at curbing Examination Malpractice in Nigeria
There are different approaches adopted by different examination bodies, governments and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Examination bodies such as the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and the National Examinations Council (NECO) have been trying to fight examination malpractice. Fagbemi (2001) cited by Olatoye (2011:7) reported efforts by WAEC to include public enlightenment campaigns, information to students on rules and regulations guiding examinations, punitive actions on candidates and WAEC staff involved in malpractice, and creation of a whole department headed by a Deputy Registrar to handle cases of malpractice. NECO has also conducted workshops, seminars and public enlightenment campaigns. An NGO known as Examination Ethics Project has worked tirelessly on examination malpractice.
The Nigerian government, in order to curtail the trends of examination malpractice in schools has made some laws. One of such laws is the Act 33 of 1999. The decree spelt out the types of examination malpractice and punishment. Offences enumerated by the Act include;
•Cheating at examinations
•Stealing of question papers
•Impersonating
•Disorderliness at examinations
•Disturbance at examinations
•Misconduct at examination
•Obstruction of supervisor in carry' out his duties during examinations.
•Breach of duty during examinations.
•Conspiracy to cheat.
•Aiding and abetting examinees to cheat and other related offences.
The Act stipulates that for any of the offences committed by a person of 18 years of age and above, a fine up to N100, 000 or imprisonment of a term up to 3 years or more would be applied. However, part II (Miscellaneous schedule) provides that when the person charged for any of the listed offences above is below the age of seventeen he/she shall be dealt with under the provisions of Children and Young Persons Act. If the accused is a school principal, invigilator, supervisor, agent, custodian or employee of an examination body, he/she will be liable to imprisonment for a term of 4 or 5 years with an option of fine, or in another case, liable to imprisonment of a term of 4 years without option of fine.
It has been observed that all the efforts by the government, examination bodies, institutions, individuals and concerned groups towards eradicating examination malpractice have not yielded meaningful results. Rather the situation has become worse in recent times (Olatunbosun 2009:104).For instance, Jekayinfa (2006:35) observed that all the penal codes made by the government have not been implemented. No offender on record is known to have been tried under any of the decrees. According to him, the decrees/laws are too draconian un-reformative and hence unenforceable. Therefore, there is the need to curb examination malpractice through some other ways like teaching of moral Education in Nigeria schools.
Ways of Curbing Examination Malpractice in Nigeria
No one can claim to have all the solutions to the eradication of examination malpractice in Nigeria, but the writer believes strongly that the following suggestions will curtail malpractice to the barest minimum.
1. Societal re-engineering and re-orientation to revamp moral values:
Good moral values should be properly inculcated into our youths, and parents counselled to stop aiding their children to cheat in examinations. Again, there is need to engage only honest persons in examination management. Petters & Okon (2014) also suggests effective counselling services in schools to assist students acquire techniques of effective study habits.
2.Retraining and reassessment of teachers: Teachers should be equipped for the technological-driven world, (Uzoigwe, n.d). Teachers cannot provide experience and activities that guide students’ progress towards understanding of ideas if they themselves do not know what these ideas are; neither can they provide experiences that challenge students if they themselves share in the same misunderstanding, (Jimoh, 2009). Since some of the teachers in our various level of education are beneficiaries or products of malpractice, a compulsory nation wide retraining of teachers is very important to re-equip them to impart knowledge. And those found non-trainable should be reassigned with administrative duties.
3.Appropriate recognition and remuneration of teachers / examination officials: Enhanced salary should be paid to teachers and special welfare package given to examination officials to dissuade them from financial and material inducements from students, parents, and others who may want to subvert examination process. The examination officials include teachers who invigilate examinations, supervisors who oversee the conduct of examinations in schools, officers of examination bodies who monitor the conduct of examinations and law enforcement agents charged with the security of the examination centres.
4.Promulgation and enforcement of examination malpractice (prohibition) laws: The Examination Malpractice Act 33 of 1999 should be amended to re-introduce the parts of Decree 20 of 1984 which advocated for twenty-one (21) years imprisonment for convicted culprits of examination malpractice without option of fine. If this is fully implemented, it will serve as deterrent to students, invigilators, security agents, and other collaborators in the malpractice business.
5. Employment of qualified teachers at all levels of education: The need for qualified manpower cannot be overemphasized. The era of agricultural science tutor teaching chemistry, physics, or integrated science under the guise that “science is science” should be over. Trained teachers should be deployed to handle subjects only in their field of specialization. Remember that a medical doctor practising engineering is a quack.
6. School libraries and laboratories should be adequately equipped: Tools for effective teaching and learning include current and quality textbooks, up to date laboratory equipment, and workshop tools. These vital equipment should be provided and the libraries and laboratories made conducive for learning activities. In fact the whole school environment should be learning-friendly and conducive for human habitation.
7. Proper funding of education sector: Federal and states annual budgets should be implemented in accordance with UNESCO recommendation of 26% of states annual budgetary allocation for education. The Nigerian government should realize that education is the bedrock of every society and a springboard for development in a complex and competitive world of today. What we have in our schools today especially in the primary and secondary schools are dilapidated classrooms and classrooms without chairs and tables.
8. Less emphasis on paper qualifications /certificates: Nigeria’s education system is largely certificate oriented. Excessive value placed on paper qualification or certificates is the major contributing factor for examination to make a living, whether by a just or unjust way, (Onuka & Durowoju, 2013).
9. The use of effective continuous assessment techniques: Akanni & Odofin (2015) defines continuous assessment (C. A.) as a continuous updating of teachers’ judgement about the learners’ performance in relation to specific criteria which will allow at anytime a cumulative judgement to be made about his /her performance. Continuous assessment compels students to make adequate use of their time for studies by completing notes, doing homework, and assignment. On the side of the teachers, it affords an early opportunity to review one’s teaching methodology and students’ assimilation of the subjects taught. Again, C. A. reduces the anxiety associated with one-shot examinations.
Curbing Examination Dishonesty through Value Education
Jekayinfa (2006), in a paper entitled ‘Curbing examination dishonesty through value education’ submitted that, the development of a nation largely depends on the types of values that are cherished, vigorously pursued and applied by majority of its citizens. Although values vary from place to place, from people to people and from one country to the other, still there are universal values that are recognized generally, and accepted in societies throughout the world. These include honesty, hard work, justice and patriotism. Nigerian society has gradually relapsed in its adherence to laudable traditional values for which traditional societies of the pre-colonial era were known. Most of the traditional folklore and fireside stories contain lessons to be learnt in honesty, humility, and charity. These values have been greatly eroded and many anti social vices have emerged and these are threatening to wipe out these cherished values.
Some Nigerian students in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions are known to exhibit several unhealthy attitudes, which are reflections of a lack of moral integrity in the educational system. Such unhealthy attitudes include indiscipline, fraud and drug abuse. The most conspicuous indiscipline and devastating of these social ills in the Nigerian schools system is examination malpractice. It has become a cankerworm in the Nigerian education system over the years. It has graduated from being an educational issue to an educational crisis. This monster has many forms, causes and consequences. Government and school authorities have tried to curb the occurrence of examination cheating but to no avail. Decisive measures should be taken to curb this menace.
Jekayinfa saw examination dishonesty, examination malpractice or examination cheating as the intent to challenge through foul and unconventional means, the integrity of an examination with a view to obtaining higher score or rating than the examinee deserves. Dishonesty in an examination setting is any activity carried out before, during or after an examination by a candidate or agents who can be parents, siblings or hired persons, aids, personnel of examination bodies or stake holders like the school officials (examiners, invigilators, supervisors) that distort the expected and valid outcomes of the examination(Awanbor,2006).
Value is a predisposition to believe that something is good or bad. Values are determined by the belief we hold. They are ideas about what someone or group thinks is important in life. Values play important role in decision-making. We express our values in the way we think and act (Lemin, as stressed by Jekayinfa, 2006). Values are taught so that students can know in advance the actions they can take in any given situation. “Values education” involves “educating for character” and for “morality”. It is the teaching of respect and responsibility and other good virtues to citizens for good character development and for the health of the nation. As Lickong pointed out in Dike (2005), respect and responsibility are two fundamental moral values” that a society should teach its citizens. Other values are fairness, self-discipline, compassion, prudence and other democratic values. However, rule of law, due process, equality of opportunity, checks and balances and democratic decision-making are “procedural values. All these would enable the people to create a viable humane society and to act “respectfully and responsibly”. Thus, taking responsibility for the things we do wrong as well as the things we do right is the way to move the society forward. Dike (2005) claimed that responsibility matters in all what we do. There is increasing moral problems in the society (corruption, greed, violent crimes, political killings) and in Nigerian schools (examination dishonesty, drug abuse and other destructive behaviors). These behaviours, call for ‘value education’ in the schools which will spread to the larger society. Some individuals and institutions with morality problems are known to have ‘aided and abetted frauds’ during the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB), the West African Senior School Certificate Examinations (WASSCE) and National Examinations Council (NECO),
examinations leading to the frequent cancellations of results. The Daily Independent of May 22, 2005 reported that in the past nine years, about ‘five million’ results had been cancelled. Many students have been involved in examination dishonesty and have been rusticated.” Moral education’ or value education is essential for the success of a democratic society. “Value education” or good education consists of knowing what is good, desiring what is good and doing what is good. This should be instilled in the children right from the elementary schools. People who have good character, according to Bernest in Dike (2005),”act truthfully, loyally, kindly and fairly without being much tempted (or pulled) by the opposite forces to indulge in unproductive behaviours. Value education should be planned for, by the curriculum developers so that the teaching of respect, responsibility, and other moral values like honesty should be in the nation’s schools curricula for good character development.
The alarming rate of examination dishonesty in Nigeria in particular, calls for the teaching of value education. Children and youth must not just be educated “to know “and “to do”, we must educate them “to be and to live together (Jacques 1996). Quality education recognizes the whole person and promotes education that involves the affective as well as the cognitive domains. Values such as peace, honesty, forthrightness, dedication, and diligence are cherished and aspired the world over. Such values are the sustaining force of human society and progress. What children and youth learn is later woven into the fabric of the society. So, positive values should be passed on to the school children if we wish to create a better world for all. Jekayinfa has given the following suggestions as ways for teaching value education:
1.Educators should give room for activities that actively engage and allow students the opportunity to explore and experience their own qualities which are of crucial importance.
2. Use a child-centered approach, flexible and interactive session to make students engage in reflection, visualization and artistic expression to draw out their ideas.
3. Educators should create a value-based atmosphere in which all students can feel respected, valued, understood, loved and safe.
4. Allow students to think about and reflect on different values and the practical implications of expressing them in relation to themselves, others, the community, and the world at large.
5. Inspire students to choose their own personal, social, moral and spiritual values and be aware of practical methods for developing and deepening them.
6. Let students appreciate that although values differ from people and vary from place to place, there are universal or generally accepted and cherished values in societies throughout the world which they should also imbibe. Such values are honesty, integrity, dedication and openness.
7. Educators are to utilize their own rich heritage while integrating values into everyday’s activities and the curriculum. In lower classes and among children of ages 6-14 years, most of our traditional folklores and fireside stories that contain lessons to be learnt on honesty, values of hard work, and social service to the community, should be made use of . Stories from modern African Writers and stories that have their origin in the White man’s culture which highlight universal values should also be encouraged.
8. Let students be aware of possible penalties and sanctions against people who depart from the cherished values of the society.
9. Let student know what lying, stealing, dishonesty and so forth, amounts to, and let them know that they should be regarded as wrong or immoral
10. Teach them knowing “how”. This is what researchers called procedural knowledge, knowing how to do something. For example, ”knowing to be honest involves knowing that if you find someone’s purse, you should return it with the money and all the valuables you found in it intact as that’s how to be honest.
11. Students do need assistance in developing values that is “know how”. Assist students to develop the values of “know to” This is the type of knowledge that leads to action. If for instance, a student “knows to” be honest, he/she will not cheat even if he can get away with it, He/she will return lost and found belongings regardless of their value, and so forth (Clabaugh, 1999).
12. Educators should conduct themselves more decently because, generally, many students who “know that” honesty is the best policy, and “knowing how” to be honest still are dishonest. This is because the students need quantum leap from the “knowing that” and “, knowing how”, to “knowing to”. The student can only develop “knowledge about values only when the important people in their lives live that way. The best way to really help students “how to” act more morally is for the educators to conduct themselves morally, to be people to be emulated and to be above board.
From the foregoing, it is crystal clear that there is need for everyone to discharge his/her duties in a faithful and honest manner in order for Nigeria to solve the problem of examination malpractice.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study can be associated to certain existing theories as highlighted below: Communist theory: communist theory is defined by Marx and Engels (1848) in a single phrase as the abolition of private property. Marx and Engels stated that the society as a whole is more and more splitting up into the great camps, or opposing classes; the Proletariats and the Bourgeoisie. Political power depicts that property is merely the organized power of one class oppressing another. Communism deprives no man of the power to appropriate the product of the society but it deprives him of the power to subjugate the labour of others by means of such appropriation
Measures needed to convert to communism include: abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to the public, heavy progressive income tax, abolition of all rights of inheritance, confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels, centralizing of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with a state capital, centralizing of the means of communication and transportation in the hands of the state, factories and production owned by the state and cultivation of wastelands, equal liability of all labour, establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture and combining agriculture and manufacturing industries.
Since this study is concerned with ensuring malpractice free examinations during all public examinations in Nigeria, it tends associate itself with the Communist theory. The researcher admits with the fact that most candidates indulge in examination malpractice in order to make good grades and increase their chances of having better life through good employment. The theory emphasizes that communism bridges the gap between the rich and the poor thereby, discouraging candidates from seeing passing examinations excellently as the only resort to getting a well paid job.
Transformative Learning Theory
Transformative learning theory as propounded by Mezirow (1981), explains the process of constructing and appropriating new and revised interpretations of the meaning of an experience in the world. Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference. Although, it is recognized that important emotional changes are often involved, these frames of reference define our view of the world and we have a tendency as adults to reject or deem unworthy any ideas that do not ascribe to our particular values, associations, concepts, etc. Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions; habits of mind and points of view. Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism, are more fixed and influence our points of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with them, whereas points of view may change over time as a result of influences such as reflection, appropriation and feedback. Transformative learners utilize discourse as a means of critical examination and reflection “devoted to assessing reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of view.” When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self-reflective, and integrative of experience. Transformative learning leads to autonomous and responsible thinking which is essential for full citizenship in democracy and for moral decision making in situations of rapid change.
If candidates who perpetrate examination malpractices can be influenced by positive minded people who frown at examination malpractices, the tendency for those candidates who take part in examination malpractice to be transformed into morally upright citizens is there. When all perpetrators of examination malpractices turn a new leaf and are transformed into positive minded people, the problem of examination malpractices will be curtailed.
The theories above are indications that malpractices cannot take place if proper learning has taken place. If the classroom teacher, bearing in mind the psychology of the learner, does his/her work well and if the learner appreciates his or her position in the society and then work hard as the future leader of the country, and above all if the learning environment is made conducive, then, learning activities will be more interesting and permanent. When learning has taken place, many students and candidates will not resort to examination malpractices. They will rather use their talents to answer questions examinations. This can effectively be achieved if adequate innovative strategies for curbing examination malpractices are being put in place. Hence the need for the study.
2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
Examination malpractice has touched the hearts of many people who have this country at heart. These are people who are interested in enhancing qualitative education for the citizenries of Nigeria. These people wish to liberate the citizens of Nigeria since education they say, is power. They want Nigerians that take any form of examination to be awarded their deserved grades. They want people to carry certificate they can defend.
Okechukwu (2002) in the research work entitled ‘Strategies for Curbing Examination Malpractice in Senior School Certificate Examination in Anambra State, observed that, adequate arrangements were not usually made to ensure both the security of the question paper and their arrival in good time at various designated examination centres. The data collecting instrument was a 40 item questionnaire developed by the researcher. The questionnaires were administered to a total of 768 respondents, made up of 35 national and international staff of the West African Examinations Council and 733 tutorial staff of sampled secondary school students in Anambra State. While frequencies and means were used to provide answers to the research questions, z-test statistics was used to test the hypotheses. The researcher went further to state that , there is a strong indication that those appointed as invigilators and supervisors lack proven integrity, thus, examination malpractice becomes the order of the day. Again, it was noted by the researcher that examinations in some places are conducted in over-crowded halls. To guide the researcher in carrying out the work, five research questions and five null hypotheses were formulated. The researcher recommended that WAEC should make effort to secure its examination materials, provide adequate logistics, ban the registration of external candidates in school examinations and then train and employ credible supervisors. The researcher stated further that centres should be created on merit, examination laws should be functional and then good morals should be inculcated in students. Despite the work of Okechukwu, the need to carry-out the current work on the innovative strategies for curbing examination was inevitable, considering the fact that examination malpractices are getting more sophisticated by the day.
While Ikechukwu’s study was centered on the strategies for curbing examination malpractice in Anambra State alone, this study is about the Innovative Strategies for curbing examination malpractice in Nigeria using Kaduna State as a case study. Innovative strategies are those new methods employed to identify and combat the new and remote tides of examination malpractices. As the menace of examination malpractice becomes more scientific, there is need to also change the approach of combating which is the basis for this study and which Ikechukwu’s work could not address.
Nwankwo (1997) in a research work entitled ‘School predisposing Factors in Examination Malpractice’ submitted that factors that encourage malpractices vary. Most of them have to do with psychological and social dispositions of the students to obtain high grades and avoid failure. The researcher further stated that solving this problem is dependent on teachers and student. To address the problem, four research questions were used to guide the researcher. A 50 item questionnaire was administered to 920 students and 72 teachers of Anambra State for the study. The researcher then opined that examination malpractice can be eradicated in Anambra State Secondary Schools if teachers are given adequate remuneration. Encouraging good behaviours among students in order to instil confidence in them could also aid in controlling the menace. Nwankwo, just like Ikechukwu narrowed his work to Anambra State alone and the various methods of malpractice highlighted in work have been over taken by new methods, thus the need for the current research.
Uzoigwe (2007) in a paper entitled “Corruption in Education and Assessment Systems: The WAEC experience in Nigeria,” mentioned the trend of incidences of examination malpractices in WASSCE for School Candidates’ and Private Candidates’ Examinations in Nigeria, between 2000 and 2005. In the paper, Uzoigwe stated that for a very long time the West African Examinations Council was a lone voice in the fight against examination malpractice in Nigeria. Uzoigwe stated that the situation has however, shown tremendous improvement as government (States and Federal) and other stakeholders have not only expressed concern over the problem but have indeed taken laudable steps to further the fight against it.
Uzoigwe enumerated the various efforts put in place by WAEC in curbing examination malpractices to include:
1. Public Enlightenment: The current awareness in the country today on the evils of examination irregularity/malpractice is attributable to the campaign launched by WAEC in 1984. The campaign has indirectly given birth to today’s Examination Ethics crusade in the country.
2. Information to Candidates: The Council publishes in book form and also on its website, the rules and regulations guiding its examinations. These give details of the various offences and the sanctions applicable to them.
3. Sensitization of Government/Stakeholders: The Council, as a matter of policy, avails the government and stakeholders of decisions taken on reported cases of malpractice by its appropriate Committees.
4. Sanctions: The Council promptly sanctions candidates caught cheating in its examinations and reports teachers and other operatives to their employers for appropriate sanctions. Any staff of Council found to have been involved in examination irregularity/malpractice is regarded as a security threat and is summarily dismissed.
5. Embossment of Certificates: The Council introduced photo-embossed certificates to reduce the incidence of impersonation in its examinations.
6. Use of Security Bags for the collection of Security Materials: Question papers are collected by supervisors in locked-up security bags to which they do not have the keys. One set of the key is kept by the WAEC staff at the custodian point where question papers are collected while the other set is kept by the schools’ examination officers at the point of delivery to the school centre.
7. Mounting of Anti-Malpractice Billboards: Anti-malpractice billboards are mounted in vantage positions throughout the country to increase public awareness of the ills of examination malpractice.
8. In-house Security Measures:
(i) The Council has created the Post-Examination Department to handle cases of irregularity and malpractice in its examinations;
(ii) Newly recruited officers of Council are administered with Oaths of Secrecy on assumption of duty;
(iii) The Council has developed security regulations which are reviewed periodically and made available to officers for proper guidance. Any breach of any of the regulations is promptly sanctioned.
9. Delivery of Examination Materials: The delivery of question papers and other examination materials to custodian points/distribution centres is done on daily basis and by senior officers of the Council. The custodian points/distribution centres are also manned by senior officers.
10. Examination Centre Supervisors: The examination centre supervisors are swapped on daily basis to guard against undue familiarity with and influence from the schools.
Uzoigwe further stressed that the government and non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) in Nigeria have joined the crusade against examination malpractice. Some of the measures adopted by the government, Uzoigwe outlined are:
(i) Deployment of senior officials of the Ministry of Education (Federal and State levels) on inspection of examination centres.
(ii) Monitoring of the enrollment of candidates for school examinations to prevent non-school candidates from registering for the examination.
(iii) Sanctioning of erring schools, principals, supervisors and other examination officials.
In their bid to curb examination malpractices, Uzoigwe revealed that WAEC and other examining bodies are faced with a number of challenges, among which are:
(1) Poor Funding: The organizations rely heavily on revenue derived from examination fees which are barely sufficient to run their operations. He appreciated that Government financial assistance has improved in recent years but needs to be increased in order to provide the required assistance.
(2) Inadequate Staffing: These bodies do not have enough senior personnel to man all its examination centres nationwide. They therefore rely on the use of teachers, principals, Ministry of Education officials, Banks, Sub-Treasuries, and Security Agents for supervision, invigilation and custody of security materials as well as marking of scripts.
(3) Existing Laws: There is need for existing laws to tighten the noose on examination cheats.
(4) The problems posed by ICT: The incidence of fore-knowledge of examination question papers or leakage which hitherto could be localized now spreads fast through the use of mobile phones and internet facilities by candidates.
(5) Degradation of Moral Values: Emphasis on materialism seems to supplant societal ethos.
(6) Increasing Risk to Life: Examination officials now face increasing risks to their lives and property as they dare to stand up against malpractice.
Despite the efforts of all researchers and contributors as seen above, this work is eminent for the fact that it takes into cognizance the new trends of perpetrating examination malpractices as seen in the instrument for this research, which were not contained in the other works; since examination malpractice changes from time to time to incapacitate people that may want to prevent it.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several authors and scholars on the availability and utilization of school library resources. The works of scholars who conducted empirical studies have been reviewed also. The chapter has made clear the relevant literatures.