SCIENCE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES/MODELS IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual Framework
According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), Conceptual framework is a basic structure of a research consisting of certain abstract ideas and concepts that a researcher wants to observe, experiment or analyse. This study based on Stufflebeam model (1971) which aims to examine the effect of secondary school curriculum implementation in science subjects on teaching and learning.
Context: Refers to particular circumstances that are likely to affect teaching and learning processes and performance in general. In this case, there are various conditions that may affect science subjects’ performance such as changing of science subjects’ curriculum without consulting society needs, school time in learning and adapting to new introduced curriculum and presence of science subjects’ curriculum.
Concept of Curriculum
According to Apple (1997), Curriculum refers to the existing contract between the society, the state and educational professional with regard to the educational experience that learners should undergo during a certain phase of their lives including why learning something, what to learn, when to learn, how to learn and with whom to learn. It defines the educational foundations, contents and their sequencing in relation to the learning experiences, characteristics of the teaching institutions, methods to be used, the sources for learning and teaching (for example textbooks), evaluation mode and teacher’s profiles. Moreover, Gultig, Hoadley and Jansen (2002) define Curriculum as the formal academic programme provided by a school as reflected in subjects on the time table. In this sense it might also refers to a particular course of instruction or a syllabus, means and material with which students interact for the purpose of achieving identified educational outcomes. It prescribes course of studies which students must fulfil in order to pass a certain level of education, for example primary or secondary education.
On the other hand, Kearsley (1996) describes curriculum as a single most important instrument of structure in a course which outlines the goals and objectives of a subject, prerequisites the grading or evaluation scheme, material to be used (textbooks, software), topics to be covered a schedule and a bibliography. Each of these components defines the nature of learning experience. Goals and objectives identify the expected outcomes and scope of the subject as determined by the teacher or subject designer restricting the domain of knowledge for the learner. The grading or evaluation scheme tells students what kind of learning activities are to be valued (example assignments, tests, papers); that is, the currency of learning in particular subject or topics to be covered specify the content that the teacher feels is important.
2.2 curriculum implementation
Hancock et al (2012) define curriculum implementation as the transformation of the curriculum schemes for example its design, goals and content. That is, it refers to the linkages or close working relationship between developers of syllabi, assessors of the syllabi (Examination bodies), implementers of the syllabi (Teachers), consumers of the syllabi (students), evaluators of implementation of the syllabi (school inspectors), consumers of the graduates (employers), and supporting education stakeholders (parents and community members). It means making the curriculum different in some way, to give it a new position or direction. This often means alteration to its philosophy by way of its aims and objectives, reviewing the content included, revising its methods and re-thinking its evaluation procedures. curriculum implementation should have clear and definitive goals that can be easily understood to the targeted group and the society as a whole. For example, curriculum implementation that is multicultural should espoused democratic equality, by seeking to provide all children with the skills and knowledge they will need in a global and diverse society.
According to Dziwa et al (2013), curriculum implementation is not a matter of supply of appropriate technical information rather it involves changing attitudes, values, skills and relationship. It requires expert itself with motivated force to introduce and direct change, this means that the basic conditioning for change is the existence of school structures which can accommodate and accelerate change; thus, it is important to note that there must be readiness to accept these changes in the curriculum. curriculum implementation has far reaching implications, it means changing some of the fundamental elements of the curriculum which are aims, content (what to be taught), methodology (how it is going to be taught) and evaluation. This means or implies change of the internal organization of the school relationship, change of relationship between schools and government agents which control education (Gatawa 1999).
2.3 Reasons for General curriculum implementation
curriculum implementation is considered as an essential strategy for bringing about improvement in teacher education. It is any alteration in the aspects of a curriculum such as philosophy, values, objectives, organizational structures, materials, teaching strategies, student experiences, assessment and learning outcomes (Liston, Borko & Whitomb, 2008). The success of change or improvement and its implementation requires the application of a number of key features and will always originate from a variety of different sources and combination of sources. Several factors have influenced curriculum implementation; these include the political, social and cultural, psychological, pedagogical and knowledge, economic, technological and legal. However, according to Fullan (2000), some other curriculum implementation may result from external factors such as international educational policies or from internal needs such as educational values and goals of a group of people.
According to Mahomed (2004), science subjects’ curriculum must change to stay current. Methods of teaching and transmitting new knowledge and concepts to the learners should change accordingly and new knowledge should be introduced to have a latest understanding on current facts. For instance, the geography curriculum for the fourteenth century included several references to a flat Earth. Instructors at that time spent countless hours devising lesson plans explaining the dangers of sailing off the edge but due to some new discoveries that the world is not flat but rather a round one with an oval shape, all the teachings on the new knowledge should change to accomplish the current understanding. Notions about how things work constantly change. New facts are uncovered that take the place of old ones. New conclusions are arrived at, based on the discovery of new facts.
Today, the rate of change is very rapid. In some areas, new discoveries are made on a daily basis. In order to prepare our students, we must give them the latest information and theories. This means that curriculums must change to reflect the most current thoughts. Technology is another factor that drives about change in science subjects’ curriculum. Jones (2002) expresses that, science subjects’ curriculums often change based on the technological and delivery system. It is important to stay familiar with the latest technological developments in your field. Think of the impact that computers have on the educational system. Information to and from students can be processed and stored in ways that no one could have imagined years ago. Students, through distance learning, need not be in your classroom in order to be part of the class. A curriculum must change in ways that allow the computer to be used to support the educational process. Imagine teaching a science class before and after the development of the microscope. While the same concepts may be taught with or without a microscope, the use of the microscope certainly makes the subject easier to see and understand. Only a change in your science curriculum would allow you to take advantage of this technology. This step would then lead to other changes in what you teach and how you teach it.
2.4 Reasons for Science Subjects curriculum implementation
curriculum implementation always comes as an idea for the purpose of developing some ideas and issues that need to be changed according to time and society. There are different reasons why curriculum in science subjects change. One was based on the principles of making people and particularly learners to make science subjects as simple subjects to learn as other subjects and feel the subjects as part of their daily lives. Killen (2000) states that science subjects’ curriculum reforms are designed to encourage all the people to be lifelong learners who will be responsible and productive members of society; and allowing learners to continually evaluate the dynamic interaction between the goal, and their actions, and feedback. Killen further argues that without making that, learners cannot identify ways to take action, evaluate their impact of their actions, or recognize their responsibility as learners.
On the other hand, it is argued that science curriculum reforms is inevitable since that it allows change and shift in approaches that allow learners much participation rather than relying on what teachers produce in the lessons Luehman and Barab (2003)point out that this shift in approaches involve curriculum and teaching strategies that embed content in rich inquiry contents through which learners appreciate content and those situations in which content has value. This helps learners to feel themselves as part subject’s instructional materials and other classroom practices. This also helps to reduce the load that has been shouldered to teachers including administrative activities and supervision of learners’ academic development. Therefore, by changing teaching and learning approaches that give learners much room to participate in the lesson it makes learners take teaching and learning responsibilities part of their studying life.
.5 Effects of curriculum implementation in Science Subjects
According to Jones (2002) curriculum implementation means making the curriculum different in some way, to give it a new position or direction. This often means alteration to its philosophy by way of its aims and objectives, reviewing the content included, revising its methods and re-thinking its evaluation procedures. curriculum implementation in science subjects have been influenced by different factors including the needs, interests or abilities of the learner; elimination of unnecessary units, teaching methods and contents; introduction of latest and update methods of teaching and content, new knowledge and practices; addition or deletion of number of lessons/periods hours of instruction. Also, to correlate between the student’s theory courses and learning practices; population growth and population pattern.
The aim of science subjects’ curriculum implementation is to have a desired achievement at the end of its implementation. However, the implementation of desired achievements depends much on different factors/resources. Rogan and Grayson (2003) emphasise that those who are responsible for science subjects’ curriculum implementation activities should understand what resources are available and the degree of resources available to support the change. There is always a need for support from curriculum developers to monitor the implementation of new curriculum implementation and processes in each and every school. Support provided may limit the challenges teachers are encountering in their daily process of dealing with problems and questions related to curriculum.
2.6 Teaching Science Subjects in Secondary Schools
The purpose of education is to enable the society to have a command of knowledge, skills and values which are necessary for a highly competitive and globalised society, arising from the impact of rapid development in science, technology and information. To reach this purpose of education, science subjects are responsible and play an important role in developing children’s well-defined abilities in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Kendra (2013) asserts that science subjects augment the spirit of enquiry, creativity, objectivity and aesthetic sensibility studying science subjects helps to understand the natural world that also helps to inculcate scientific literacy and culture for all, so that people can make informed choices in their personal lives and approach challenges in the work place in systematic and logical order, and to produce competent professionals in various scientific disciplines.
The teaching and learning of science subjects according to Silla (2009) is a conscious effort to raise the level of scientific literacy of all students and equip them with the relevant basic integrated scientific knowledge needed for their own survival and for the development of the country. Also, it cultivates in learners an interest and love for science that argues for some to seek further studies in science as preparation for careers in science.
Lee (2005) contends that science subjects are being taught at all levels from primary school to university level to equip the learners with the fundamental scientific skills. This is to enable them to use the scientific knowledge in different situations. Hence, the science programmes focus on the skills that engage learners with the process of science like observing, recording, drawing, tabulation, plotting graphs; and abstraction and quantitative reasoning to occupy a more central place in the teaching and learning science. Lee furthermore argues that, science subjects are an integral part of the whole National Education System, which is based on the National Education Philosophy. It acknowledges that knowledge is the key determinant of the destiny and survival of the nation.
2.9 Application of Constructivism Theory to Science Subjects Teaching and Learning
The desire to develop competence in learners especially in their study and acquisition of the science subjects’ knowledge and skills suggests the building of scientific skills including observation, recording, computation, drawing, tabulation, plotting graphs and giving solutions to some scientific problems as attributed to Jean Piaget who articulated mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. According to Widdowson (2008) individuals are able to construct new knowledge from their own experiences through processes of accommodation and assimilation. When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are aligned with their internal representations of the world. On the other side accommodation reframing one's mental representation of the external world to fit new experiences. The theory describes how learning happens, when learners construct knowledge out of their experiences thus through this mode learners of science would be able to learn the subjects appropriately and develop their scientific knowledge and skill.
Additionally, Coyle (1999) insists that, cognitive constructivism insists on learner’s own responsibility to discover how new knowledge connects with prior knowledge. The learner continuously asks questions and guides his/her own learning process. The learner learns that there is not just one way to solve problems, but rather multiple ways to finding answers. The teacher’s role is to anticipate and address student misconceptions while presenting authentic questions and real-world problems or situations. The teacher does not provide clear answers on how to solve these problems or questions, but guides students to make sense of how meanings of words work according to what their past experiences are and how it applies to the new knowledge they are constructing.
2.7 Empirical Review
A research done by Litshan L (2013) on the impact of the curriculum implementation revealed that inadequate resources, skills and knowledge and lack of pre-planning on new curriculum development adversely affect the teaching and learning of science in schools, hence it is proposed that curriculum development and reform be piloted before it is implemented as proposed in the model for the preparation of effective curriculum implementation and development in science, the provision of science with well- equipped laboratories will play a greater role in effective teaching and learning of science in schools.
The paper conducted by Tupeni (2006) examined that the introduction of an innovation careful planning is necessary and this requires formulation of new goals and directions, and corresponding set of strategies and teaching materials appropriately designed to achieve the goals. It is usually concerned with improvement of ways and means of achieving established goals. Innovation and change make different demands on teachers and such demands have implications for teacher education program. But any teacher education programme designed to equip teacher with new curricula or to up- date their ideas and practices with respect to on-going curricula needs to be properly based on an understanding of the roles of teachers, their tasks and responsibilities and their problems in curriculum development and/or implementation.
Jenkins (2001) in his study pointed out that many of the changes might have been anticipated, others are surprising and a cause for concern. The evidence suggests that in a significant number of schools less time is being spent upon practical activities in the laboratory and pupils are presented with a narrower range of laboratory activities. A substantial proportion of teacher’s judge national curriculum science to be insufficiently flexible to allow them to meet the needs of all their pupils and provide them with an enjoyable scientific education.
Again, the study done by Litshan (2013) on the impact of curriculum implementation revealed that teachers feel that it is not necessary for them to change the way they teach, especially those who did not receive training on the new curriculum implementation during their tertiary education. Also the finding indicate that lack of resources impact negatively on the implementation of curriculum reform in teaching and learning of science in many under resourced schools in rural areas, not easy for subject advisors to give relevant support because of inadequate resources and lack of human capacity.
Also Ajuwape and Olatoye (2004) in their study on the impact of planning on teaching and curriculum development of teaching and learning found that lack of qualified teachers, lack of practical work as well as lack of equipment’s and facilities for teaching, insufficient allotment of time for integrated science on the school time table and poor methods of teaching are the major factors militating against the successive implementation of the changed curriculum in integrated science.