SOCIAL SUPPORT AND INTERPERSONAL COMPETENCE AS A PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in two sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical framework
• Empirical Review

2.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

SOCIAL SUPPORT

Thus, the concept of social support has been defined in various ways. Some studies on social support conceptualized it as the existence of interpersonal relationships (structural support) and the functions served by such interpersonal relationships (functional support). On the other hand, social support defined as an individual’s perceptions of specific or general support (emotional, informational, appraisal, instrumental) from people in their social network. In early studies, social support is defined as interpersonal relationship of person that might affect to psychological and social functioning (Caplan, 1974). Social support can also be identified as information that are accepted from others who loved, valued, esteemed, and cared for (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Shumaker & Brownell, 1984).

In terms of pyschology, Folkman and Lazarus (1988), believed that person who had a good relationship with family and peers are more resilient when faced with problems in their lives and likely to cope more effectively with life’s adversities and experience positive adjustment and mental health outcomes. Thus, it can be justified that social support first originates from members of an individual’s family and then from one’s peers.

Recently, social support definition more emphasize on the importance of perception. For example, Demaray and colleagues (2005) defined social support as an individual’s perception that he or she is loved and valued by people in his or her social network. Meadows (2007), identifies social support as beliefs and/or perceptions that indicate an individual is part of an interpersonal relationship that includes parents and peers. However, Davison et al, (2000) believe that social support talks about the person needs for support with close others and provide it when others experience distress. In addition, social support might provide a person with a forum to share and deal a wide range of issues.

INTERPERSONAL COMPETENCE

Interpersonal relationship or competence is an interaction that exists between any two or more persons with an aim of fulfilling one or more physical or emotional needs (Cavazos, 2013). Learners in St. Bernadette School with HI have varied degrees of hearing loss ranging from mild to profound structures for effective interactions in the learning environment. Many a time they rarely discuss freely as a group, class or comrades. Their grouping or closeness is majorly based on degree of hearing loss, geographical locations and level of communicability of individual learners. As a result, it deprives them the freedom of relating well with their teachers and among themselves; asking and answering questions from their teachers, sharing ideas, discussing freely as a class or group for the benefit of social and academic growth (Mayesky, 2014:227) Cavazos identified the components of interpersonal skills as verbal communication, non-verbal communication, listening skills, negotiation, problem-solving, decision making and assertiveness. Communication is the exchange of ideas, information, thoughts and feelings. Without positive interpersonal relationship amongst learners 2 and teachers, there could be communication breakdown, hence poor academic performance. Interpersonal relationship could be significant in the academic performance of student in three way ways. Such as

• Parent –Child Relationship
• Teacher-Student Relationship
• Student-Student l Relationship

Parent-Child Relationship

Parent-child interaction has long been considered to have a crucial influence on child academic performance and development. The communication between a parent and a child brings a reciprocal combined effect on the action of a parent and a child (Rosso& Owens, 1982). A warm and responsive parent-child interaction balances acceptance with limits and is positively related to self-esteem, acceptability and achievement of the child. Benard and Kelly (1990) reported that child's ability to experience, to decide and control his own behaviour through his decision depends on his relationship with parent. Children who are in strong parent-child relationship have high school achievement rate, low deliquesce and dropout rate and increased completion rate (Shamsuddin 2006). Shamsuddin (2006) reported that parents who 22 have placed a high value on autonomy, independence, mastery of competence and achievements exhibit curiosity in academic field. Such parents also allow give and take interaction with their children seriously to exhibit curiosity and motivation to their children for academic excellence.

Teacher- Student Interaction

The teacher-pupil’s interpersonal relationship and interaction has long been considered to have a crucial influence on child academic performance and development. The communication between a teacher -child brings a reciprocal combined effect on the action towards learning process (Rosso & Owens, 1982). A warm and responsive teacher interaction balances acceptance with limits and is positively related to self-esteem, acceptability and achievement of the pupils. Benard and Kelly (1990) reported that Learner's ability to experience, to decide and control his own behaviour through his decision depends on his relationship with the teachers and other pupils as well. Children who are in strong teacher-learner’s relationship have high school achievement rate, low deliquesce and dropout rate and increased completion rate (Shamsuddin 2006). Shamsuddin (2006) reported that teachers who have placed a high value on autonomy, independence, mastery of competence and achievements exhibit curiosity in academic field.

Student-Student Relationships

Pupil-pupil interactions provide multiple opportunities for pupil to discuss ideas in small groups. It supports a whole class discussion which generates deep thinking process. A pupil-pupil interaction is also an indicator for the proportion with which the class is dedicated to pupil talking to one another and all they have learnt. Classroom interaction has long been considered to play a significant role in a learning environment where learning is realized and educational objectives attained. A pupil’s interpersonal relationship and interaction is also an indicator for the proportion with which the class is dedicated to pupils talking to one another and all they have learnt. Classroom interaction of pupils with their teacher foster academic performance and has been considered to play a significant role in a learning and acquisition of the taught concepts. The school environment influences teaching and learning experience where learning is realized and educational objectives attained as predetermined by the institution.

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Academic performance is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has attained their short or long-term educational goals. Completion of educational benchmarks such as secondary school diplomas and bachelor's degrees represent academic achievement. (Wikipedia). Academic performance means the knowledge and skills that students have mastered in a subject or a course. It’s basically a measure of how well students have performed in the various assessment items set for them based on some educational criteria determined by professional educators. Through students' performance in the assessment items such as essays, tests, and examinations, students’ performance are determined in ranking as to the educational standards that they have reached — pass, credit, distinction, high distinction and so On (Quora. 2016).

Academic performance is a tool for identifying strength and weakness in education and is an outcome of an educational assessment. The practice of educational assessment seeks to determine how well the learners are learning and provides feedback to learners and other stakeholders on the effectiveness of education services (National Resource Council 2001) the education system uses academic performance to design and implement programs and services that may improve the academic performance of learners with hearing impairment. The Ministry of Education and parents have a greater desire to see the children’s upbringing and educations improve in order to increase demands made by the work place on young people’s basic skills (Ndurumo, 1993). Over the years research has shown that learners with hearing impairment in Kenya have consistently trailed behind their hearing counterparts in academic performance (Ndurumo, 1993: Okombo, 1994 &Adoyo, 1995)

SOCIAL SUPPORT AND ACDEMIC PEFORMANCE

Academic performance is considered as having a strong relationship with support(Konoshi, Hymel, Zumbo & Li, 2010). The reason why availability of social support tends to predict better academic performance takes anchorage on the two perspectives of the social support construct - the main effect model; and the buffering model - as conceptualized by Cohen & Wills (1985). The academic arena has often been seen as a hassle-fraught, stress-laden domain (Richaud de Minzi, 2006; Wrzesniewski & Chylinska, 2007; Shokri, Farahani, Nouri, & Moradi, 2013). Consequently, the perception of the availability as well as the actual utilization of availed support, constitute elements that can significantly abate the stressful experiences that often characterize academic pursuits. The prospect of actual accessibility of social support is particularly crucial because it strengthens the feeling of a resource unconditionally ceded for utilization at the beneficiary’s behest. They function as protective factors that insulate against the disorientating impacts of stressors; thus hedging against low achievement and school disengagement (Mackinnon, 2012; Perry, Liu, & Pabian, 2010).

INTERPERSONAL RELATION AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

When learners are closer to their teachers they tend to have good learning environment that yields to higher achievement levels of Teacher-pupil relationship ,Class interaction, Question and answer·Reinforcement· Parent-child relationshipsHome-work support· Adequate interaction·Home-school followups· Pupil-pupil relationships Class discussion· Group discussion· Out of class interaction·. Once a Learner feels that he/she has a strong interpersonal connection to teachers strive to work hard and perform better so as to keep the good relationship. Positive teacher-Learners relationships draw learners into active process of learning and engagement which promote their desired academic performance. The active interaction reinforces free discussions of subject matters and engaging learners for cognitive development posting into better academic performance.

2.3 THEORITIACL FRAMEWORK

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social Learning Theory (SLT) Social learning theory is increasingly cited as an essential component of sustainable natural resource management and the promotion of desirable behavioural change. (Muro & Jeffrey 2008). This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our interactions with others in a social context. Separately, by observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors. After observing the behavior of others, people assimilate and imitate that behavior, especially if their observational experiences are positive ones or include rewards related to the observed behavior. According to Bandura, imitation involves the actual reproduction of observed motor activities. (Bandura 1977). SLT has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. It is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory. This theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. (Muro & Jeffrey 2008). However, on this regards, Bandura believes that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. For that reason, in his theory he added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. According to the elements of this theory there are three general principles for learning from each other.

General principles of SLT

The principles of social learning are assumed to operate in the same way throughout life. Observational learning may take place at any age. Insofar as exposure to new influential, powerful models who control resources may occur at life stage, new learning through the modeling process is always possible. (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007). SLT posits that people learn from one another, via: Observation;·Imitation; and· Modeling· Based on these general principles, learning can occur without a change in behavior. In other words, behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior; while in contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. (Bandura, 1965). Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. (Bandura, 2006b). Bandura demonstrated that cognition plays a role in learning and Over the last 30 years social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning; these points supported by (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007)

2.4 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Findings of numerous studies appear to be convergent on the idea that social support constitutes a very significant factor in determining positive outcomes among children and adolescents (Arslan, Cardark & Uysal, 2013; Uglesia, Stover & Liporace, 2014). Steinberg and Darling (2005) examined the relationship between social support and academic achievement among a sample of students. Their study outcome indicated that social support emanating from family and friends appeared to impact some significant influence on the academic performance and long-term educational plans of the students. Wentzel (1998) also conducted a study on social support of parents, teachers, as well as peers, for their motivational influence on academic and pro-social goals, among 167 middle school students in a predominantly middle class community. The study findings revealed that parental and peers support predicted academic goals. Concerning the role of peers in the motivation of teens to remain participative of students’ activities and programs, Dollete, Steese, Philips & Matthews (2004) found that when teens had positive peer interactions in their extra-curricular activities, they reported greater levels of commitment and increased motivation to continue to participate in the activities. In other words, the findings point to the fact that teens whose activities lacked positive peer relationships would deliver lower levels of commitment and motivation toward their talents and other relevant activities. The crucial role played by social support, particularly from family and friends in individual’s performance has actually been underscored by a number of studies. In a study carried out by Steinberg and Darling (1994), students were directly requested to report on the extent to which their parents and friends encourage them, in board ramifications, to put up excellent academic performance in their institutions of learning. On the part of the concerned parents, they were asked to indicate their level of involvement in their wards’ school activities, the standards of performance, as well as their excepted outcomes for their wards’ performance. For friends, the questions were about the level of premium they attached to academic achievements; and the extent to which they were supportive of high performance among their friends. Findings of the study revealed that both family and friends significantly influenced the academic performance of the students. Also, Holahan, Valentiner & Moos (1995), in a cross-sectional study involving first year students found that youngsters with elevated levels of perceived parental support reported higher levels of well-being and happiness, and were less prone to distress and anxiety compared to those with lower levels of parental support. Similarly, Cutrona, Cole, Colangelo, Assouline and Russel (2004) examined the role of perceived social support from family and friends by tracking students’ performance via their Grade Point Average (GPA) from the beginning of the First Semester to the end of the Second Semester. The outcome of the study showed that, after controlling for academic aptitude - college admission test - perceived parental support and peer social support were significantly predictive of the students’ academic adjustments. Their finding was in consonance with outcomes of earlier studies, which indicated that social support was a crucial buffer factor, which provided the necessary enablement to students. On their part, Md. Aris Safree & Mariam Adawiah, (2009) carried out a study involving 120 undergraduate university students to examine the role social support plays in low and high performing students. Findings of their study revealed that student enjoying high levels of social support reported better academic performance that those with low levels of social support. The outcomes of all these studies tend to suggest that the availability and receipt of the right quality and quantity of social support from family, friends and relevant others, significantly contributed to the development of elevated levels of academic performance by students.

Mo and Singh 25 (2008) show that there is a significance of teacher and parental involvement in school Pupils school engagement and performance. The study focused on parental interpersonal relationships and involvement in their children's lives and the effects on the Pupils’ school engagement and school performance.

Lee (2012), Liberator (2012), Hughes & Chen (2011) and Chedozoy & Burden (2007) in their studies found that teachers’ good interpersonal relationship makes pupils to show attentiveness and foster acquisition of the taught concepts. The constant interaction of teacher with pupils assists in Pupils' ability to acquire knowledge and retain the learnt concepts for some time in Pupils mind. This makes pupils to be positive towards their teaching and learning process through meaningful interaction with school environment hence better academic performance.

2.5 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter revealed the conceptual frame work of social support, interpersonal relationship and academic performance. It went forward to explain this predictors of academic performance with Bandura’s social learning theory. Furthermore, finding from other studies showed that there’s a positive significant relationship between social support, interpersonal competence and academic performance of student.