STUDENTS’ AND TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF COUNSELING NEEDS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:
- Conceptual Framework
- Theoretical Framework
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept of Guidance and Counselling
Many authors have devoted time in defining guidance and counseling. Shertzer & Stone (2012) defined guidance as a process of helping individuals to understand themselves and their world. This definition underpins the fact that guidance is an interrelated action that continues for a lifetime, aimed at achieving certain desirable goals. In this direction with guidance, the individuals will understand themselves, their strengths, weakness and those characteristics that make them unique with this understanding they interact better with themselves and the world around them. Guidance is the purposeful direction of the growth of an individual in his five worlds. These five worlds in which individuals live are the physical, mental, social, emotional and psychological worlds which lead to how a person perceives the world. According to Denga (2010), guidance aims at, maximizing the intellectual potentials of the students so that they may live up as learners of subject matter. In a more elaborate definition, Peters & Farewell (2012) stated that it is the assistance given to pupils individually and through group techniques to help them function more effectively in their school progress. Educational guidance assists pupils to know and to act in terms of their present and future educational needs and opportunities. At the Senior Secondary level, the role of the counsellor as Unachukwu (2011) puts it is that the students should be properly channeled to their interests, aptitudes and abilities, and proper adjustments among their colleagues. In all levels of education as Akinboye (2013) succinctly stated, the role of counsellors is to effectively utilize all the basic counselling principles to support their learner to overcome their development and maturational problems including guidance and counselling so that the learners can make better decision on personal, social, educational, career and family marital issues. Though guidance and counselling are not synonymous, they are similar in the sense that they have as their basis a relationship that aims at assisting the individual in attaining self-direction. While guidance is a broad term usually applied to a total school programme of activities and services geared towards assisting student‟s .to make and carry out adequate plans and to achieve satisfactory adjustment in life, counselling is usually regarded as a part of guidance services. As Shetzer & Stone (2012) explained, both guidance and counselling usually deals with situational and environmental conditions. Both guidance and counselling stress rational planning problem solving and support in the face of situational problem.
Historical Background of Guidance and Counselling in Secondary Schools and Professional Qualification of School Counsellors
According to Were (2006), guidance gained momentum in the twentieth century especially in America as a reaction to change process in an industrialized society. However, Oyaziwo, Adriana and Maureen (2005) quoting Odebunmi (1985) assert that counselling really began in Africa contrary to the belief that counselling began in the United States of America. It dates back to the origin of humans. They go on to say that this traditional “counselling” was essentially based on the principles of “to guide, direct on a course, enlighten or assist”. Development of guidance and counselling in the United States of America began in the 1890s with a social reform movement (Stickel and Yang, 1993). According to Stickel and Yang (1993), the difficulties that people in urban slums were facing and the widespread use of child labour are some of the factors that led to compulsory education movement and later, vocation movement. This led to the development of the Boston Vocation Bureau Public Schools. Stickel and Yang (1993) further note that the work of the bureau influenced the need for and use of vocational guidance in the United States of America and other countries like Uruguay and China. In 1913, the National Vocation Guidance Association was formed. This helped legitimize and increase the number of guidance counsellors who were often teachers with teaching responsibilities (Stickel and Yang, 1993). By 1918, vocational guidance was spreading in the country. Between the 1920s and 1930s, there was need to take care of the social, personal and educational aspects of the students. In 1938, there was a recommendation from a presidential committee and passage of the George Dean Act which provided funds directly for the purpose of guidance and counselling (Schmidt, 2003). Further support for school counselling according to Schmidt (2003) was spurred by the launching of the Sputnik by the Soviet Union. This made the United States of America to fear that other countries were performing better in the fields of mathematics and sciences. As a result, more funds were provided for education and guidance and counselling. In the 1950s, the American School Counsellor Association (ASCA) was formed which improved the professional identity of the school counsellor (ASCA, 2007). Stickel and Yang (1993) have also noted that more school counsellors were trained and hired. There was also emphasis on accountability of services provided by the school counsellors and by 1970s, evaluations were carried out. Special education movement came into being in 1970s thus counselling needs of students with disabilities had to be addressed with the enactment of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975. Watanabe, Mieko, Senzaki and Herr (2001) have noted that school counselling is practical in other countries like Japan. Here, the goal of counselling is to help every student develop abilities of self-understanding, decision making, life planning and action taking. This helps students to adjust in career choices they want to pursue. Watanabe et al (2001) continue to say that secondary school counselling was started in France in 1922 and was developed by the educational system by the 1930s. In Thailand, school counselling consists of advice giving by teachers while in Israel, school counsellors devote their time to classroom instruction and the rest to personal and social counselling. In Hong Kong, Watanabe et al (2001) have noted that guidance and counselling has become an important service and has been incorporated in the school system. In Turkey, counselling was developed over fifty years ago and it has a professional association that publishes a journal on counselling and sponsors conferences. Thus, many secondary schools in Turkey have counselling services and receive support from the Ministry of National Education. Stickel and Yang (1993) finally say that the internet is being used by many countries as a mechanism of disseminating information on career and counselling. Thus, counselling services in schools are likely to expand worldwide in an attempt to improve everyone’s life satisfaction. Guidance and counselling services are thus well established in other countries outside Kenya. Different governments are committed to the establishment of guidance and counselling programmes in schools as a result of the increased needs of the youth. A school counsellor is a counsellor or educator who works in elementary, middle and high schools to provide academic, college access and social competencies to k-12 students in the United States of America (ASCA, 2005). In some countries such as Botswana, China,Taiwan and Israel, school counselling is provided by educational specialists. In other countries like India, Mexico, Zambia and South Korea, it is provided by classroom teachers who either have the duties added to their teaching load or teach a limited load (ASCA, 2005). Wrenn (1962) while addressing issues on professionalism of a counsellor in a changing world noted that counselling is a professional activity and a human art. It is therefore rooted in and draws sustenance from an established body of knowledge. It is founded upon its appropriate disciplines of the social sciences and the behavioural sciences. Wrenn (1962) goes on to say that one major task of a counsellor’s relationship to the student is to contribute to a growing maturity of self understanding. Therefore the realities of counsellors’ personal characteristics and aspirations are seen by the student in their relationships to cultural changes, educational and vocational opportunities. Much advice may be given to a growing child and student but unless it is given under certain conditions, very little of it will be effective. Barki and Mukhopadyay (1989) reporting on the guidance and counselling manual, agree with Wrenn (1962) that guidance and counselling is a professional activity that should not be taken up by anybody but should be taken up by professionally trained persons. This is because the chances of harming the interest of the affected person will be more than of helping them when the counsellor is not trained. A role study reported by American School Counsellor Association on different sub-groups in Herman (1967) indicated that, a school counsellor should have personal working relationship and essential competences in the behavioural sciences. He further in support of this, states that, the most critical issue that faces counselling is the quality of the counsellor’s preparation and guarantee of competence for a school counsellor in the roles they must fulfil.
The Role of Counsellors in Secondary Schools
Following the rapid changes in our society which has affected educational development, the role of counsellors has become manifest in our school system. This has become ever more pronounced with the 6-3-3-4 system. As Amadi (2001) put it, during the first three years of secondary school career every student is expected to carry all the subjects in the school curricular. This is irrespective of individual differences in ability, background, experience, social status, maturation, motivation, interest, attitudes, aptitudes etc. Consequently there is continuous assessment that constantly reminds them that they are lacking in some areas. This type of situation creates frustration and feeling of inadequacy in these students who are affected and hence the need for guidance and counseling. Also hinting on the importance of guidance and counselling in schools, Fafunwa (2012) stated that guidance and counseling, particularly at the junior secondary school level, would play an important role in the education and social growth of individuals. While Awokeye (20013) stated that the purpose of the 6-3-3-4 system of education would not be achieved without academic and career guidance and counselling especially in junior secondary schools. As Oladele (2013) observed that guidance services are professional and to individuals and small groups in dealing with common personal, educational and vocational needs and problems. These services as put by Amadi (2011) include:
- Orientation services
- Placement services
- Information services
- Counselling services
- Research and follow-up services
- In-service programme
- Appraisal services.
- Evaluation services
- Public relations services
Perception of Teachers on the Role of Counsellors in the Secondary Schools
Denga (2012) states that, the introduction of guidance counselling services have not been warmly received by various groups of people in Nigeria. Guidance and counselling services are measures oriented towards helping the individual understand and cope with his educational, vocational and personal needs and problems. Anagbogu (2012) says “like any new innovation or programme, the introduction of counselling services has not been warmly received by various groups of people in Nigeria. Many, up till today, still question the usefulness of counselling in the Nigerian setting”. That guidance and counselling is new in the society (Nigeria) and its importance will take some time to be universally accepted. In addition, the attitude of teachers towards guidance and counselling have been repulsive some principals might not even be happy to see a guidance counsellor posted to their schools. They might not even recognize the intricacies of the counsellor thereby giving him equal amount of credit hours with other teachers in the school. Confirming this also, Denga (2013) noted that a principal who knows little about counselling will not in any way appreciate the need for counsellors to be released from the heavy teaching chores so that he can tackle the guidance tasks with at least a little success. He will encumber the counsellor to capacity with teaching and extra-curricular activities to make it impossible for the counsellor to counsel. Such a principal will not even make any budgetary allocation for counselling activities such as educational and occupational hours, the testing programmes, continuous assessment activities, etc. Central to the present discussion is the fact that guidance and counselling is an innovation in most of the nation‟s schools. As such, it constitutes a change in the existing order of organization of the schools. Change of this kind cannot be effected without a complimentary rearrangement of status, power, associations, skills and so on. Those who may suffer as a result of the change may understandably be unwilling to readily accept it. As in a therapist client, a trusting positive relationship is needed to overcome the resistance of those most threatened by the prospective change. According to Ekeruo (2012), teachers regard counsellors as administrators and the nicest thing you can say about administrators is that they are a necessary evil which may be tolerated but better yet eradicated. They believe that counsellors provide ancillary services and are therefore expandable. Teachers find it difficult to accept the need for human relations specialist in schools. To admit this means that teachers have certain weakness or short comings that they are reluctant to face. These are however noticed negative attitude towards guidance and counselling as a result of their increasing participation in the school. Today, guidance and counselling is being offered as a course in some colleges of education and universities for both sandwich and regular programmes. However, guidance and counselling has not been given its appropriate position and status in the society. Besides, the educational policy makers at the top level have professed interest in the introduction of counselling services, but the various political changes affect its effective establishment. However, a lot of awareness has been created in Nigerian society as regards the need for counselling in our society. Fortunately, the National Policy of Education (2013) and several seminars and workshops held all over the country, have stressed the need for this guidance and counselling services. They have consistently tried to alert principals and teachers that the. Education their school offers especially with the current 6-3-3-4 system will be better off with the implementation of the guidance and counselling services. Although limited research work have been conducted to understand better, the processes of teaching and counselling as well as the relationship of teaching to counselling in education. In this study, an attempt is made to define each of these distinct professional areas, and their relevance, to educational development. Though the fundamental function of the school is to provide instruction, all other activities in the school are designed to help accomplish this function with maximum effectiveness. According to Tuel (2012), the purpose of education are transmission „of knowledge and skills, the preparation of the learner to actively and effectively appropriate new knowledge and skills as well as, prepare the learner to effectively apply his skills, to practical problems or new learning situations. Kenneth & Adams (2014) argued that as a member of the school staff, the counsellor supports the educational philosophy of the school, even when he disagrees with it personally. Above all the school has a right to expect that the counsellor will be proud to be known as an educator that he will make no pretences, either publicly or privately of being something better than just an educator. Those counsellors who want to hold a primary identification with either clinical or counselling psychology should not seek employment in the public school. Mime (2010), identified that one of the most striking differences in counselling activity concerns the “reality gap” between what is taught in the universities and what, is practiced in the schools. At this point, according to the National Survey on Guidance and Counselling Practice, it becomes crucial that a counsellor must be very skillful and diplomatic in performing his functions. He must be able to relate well with the principals, teachers and students. Liaison work between classroom teachers and counsellors aids the growth of educational guidance. Personal and emotional conflict of students can also be resolved if teachers and counsellors work together amicably. The existence of good relationship between the school authorities and counsellors enable counsellors function effectively in schools. One approach, suggested by Gesinde & Supo (2012), form increasing participation of the school authorities is through education as to roles and functions of Guidance and Counselling in the school system. To be successful, this technique must involve the counsellor as well. The counsellor should be educated about the basis of the perceived resistance of the school authorities to understand their reactions. The counsellor must attempt to reassure the school authorities that his role is not necessarily at odds with others. He must try to help them through the anxiety and disruption attendant upon change. According to Patterson (2010) fortunate is the counsellor who has a knowledge of the professional nature of counseling. Such an administrator will understand the goals of the counsellor and will accept the need for the establishment of the conditions necessary for professional counseling. He will recognize the importance of privacy in interview and confidentiality of information and records. Hart & Prince (2013) reported that conflict exists. Between counsellor‟s perceptions of their, roles and that which administrators expect them to do. Administrators do not believe that counsellors are particularly competent to assist students with personal and emotional problems. In relation to this perception, Boller (2010) quoted one administrator as saying “we hear a lot about his non-directive counseling, it seems that all my counsellors do it. Can‟t counsellors give a little more direction to these kids?” Central to the present discussion is the fact that guidance and counselling are seen as two sides of the same coin. Counselling is a primary tool of guidance and pivotal procedure of guidance, and should posit on objective definition in contrast to the various over lapping definitions. Guidance and Counselling has often been defined depending on each writer‟s opinions and views. This is one of the reasons why the word is sometimes rendered virtually meaningless thereby causing confusion in terms of classification, utilization and functionality. Majority of the principals and teachers alike, professed ignorance as to the purpose and nature of guidance and counseling. Many were openly unimpressed about its usefulness. This is poignantly blamed on the biased and objective less definitions of guidance and counseling. There is a lack of clarity about the new role. For instance, some principals of schools are not too clear about the role of guidance counsellors. In fact, some vice principals and deputies have considered counsellors to be rivals for promotion to higher office, whereas, infact, there is a clear line of demarcation between the guidance office in schools and the principals or vice principal‟s office. Okon (2010) and Makinde (2012) are of the opinion that where there is a professional leadership, the principals, vice principals and other deputies are psychologically threatened and therefore consider the counsellor to be rival for promotion to higher office. The way innovation is introduced could have a critical bearing on staff reactions and their motivation to support counselling implementation. If the counsellors do not involve teachers and the administrators thoroughly, there is a possibility of failure. Kenneth & Adams (2012) said that if the counsellor is seen in a supervisory relationship or, even worse, as a “spy” for the principal, his chances of being included as an active participant in such discussion are slight. They improve little, if at all, where the counsellor is viewed as one who is a logical candidate to replace the principal in and when the principal leaves the school. Another desirable teacher perception is that the counsellor should be viewed as a consultant to the classroom teacher. This in no way should be taken to imply that the counsellor is more of a specialist in a different field. We also have those aspects dealing with the administrators‟ perceptions of the counsellor‟s availability. Counsellors should be considered as available and no more so as any other staff member for special assignments which became necessary during the school day. Because the counsellor is not teaching need not cause the administrator to feel he is therefore available to perform such assignments as substitute teachers, taxi driver for sick students, official host for school visitors, acting principal, hail monitor, or ticket taker whenever an emergency arises. Neither should the counsellors be considered as one who has been hired to listen to the principal‟s complaints about teachers. To use the counsellor‟s time routinely for such purposes is to misuse it. No wonder, in Steward‟s paper and Adams (2012), written in defense of school counsellors, where a secondary school counsellor made verbatim statements during the discussion meeting .at which the writers spoke on neglected Aspects of counseling. “I have had such a frustrating job in all my life. I have no time to do real counseling. I am primarily a clerical worker”.
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Cognitive Behaviooral Therapy (Cbt)
It includes thoughts, beliefs, and internal images that people have about events in their lives (Holden.1993b). Cognitive theories of counseling focus on these mental processes and their influences on mental health. A common premise of all cognitive theories is that how people think largely determines how they feel and behave. As Burns (1980) points out, "every had feeling you have is the result of your distorted negative thinking'. It was developed by Allon Berk. The theory say that what we think is what affect our minds and our negative believe system.
Psychoanalytical Theory
It explores how the unconscious mind influences thoughts and behaviours, with the aim of offering insight and resolution to the person seeking therapy. It has two aspects,that is conscious minds and unconscisous minds. Psychoanalytic therapy tends to look at experiences from early childhood to see if these events have affected the individual’s life. It was developed by Sigmund Freud, where he divided human personality into three structures or elements. That is Id,ego and superego. (a)THE ID The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited or biological components of personality, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and the aggressive (death) instinct – Thanatos. It focuses on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920), which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. (b)THE EGO It focuses on reality principle. It is developed from the Id. The ego operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of satisfying the Id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. Also deals with awareness of what you want to do or to be in your life. (c) THE SUPEREGO It deals with values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and society at large. In short, It deals with what is acceptable and what is not acceptable in the society. According to Freud it develops around the age of 5 years. It might be called the moral part of the mind The superego's function is to control the Id's impulses, especially those which society forbids, such as sex, insults(abusive languages) as well as aggression. It also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals. The superego consists of two systems; (a)The conscience; The conscience can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt. For example, if the ego gives in to the Id's demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt. (b) The ideal self; is an imaginary picture of how you ought to be, and represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to behave as a member of society. The ideal self and conscience are largely determined in childhood from parental values and how you were brought up.