STUDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF THE ROLE OF SCHOOL COUNSELORS IN THE CHOICE OF A CAREER

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

Over the years, students’ perception of school counselling and their attitudes to its programmes has increasingly generated a great deal of concern among school counsellors in many parts of the world (Corney et al 1979; Glazer, 1960, Harman, (1971). The effectiveness of any counselling service has been attributed largely to the prevailing climate of opinion towards such a service (From, 1953). Counsellees attitudes which reflect this opinion are indices of their willingness or otherwise to accept, patronise or utilise counselling services. Evidence from related literature reveals two basic attitudinal response patterns, those students whose attitudes are positive (Burke, et al 1979; Form, 1953) and those whose attitudes are negative (Mack, 1970; Mclover, 1971). Although attitudes generally have cognitive, affective and behavioural characteristics, in this paper, it has been found convenient to conceptualise counsellees’ attitudes as a function of individual perception. In his study of some students in the USA, Harman (1971) found that clients’ attitudes to counselling relate to a range of factors, chief among them being individual perception. Burke and Bryan (1979) add that if the perception of counselling is low or poor it is likely to elicit negative attitudinal response and result in a rejection of its programmes. The opposite holds if their perception is high or good. Theoretically guidance and counselling has emerged as the third estate of the Nigerian School system (Achebe, 1986). It Was adopted over a decade ago within the context of the 6-3- 3-4 system of education because its comprehensive nature and overall philosophy encompass appreciation of the worth and dignity of the individual, realisation of the individual differences among men and recognition of man’s inherent rights to self-direction and choice. The introduction of any idea or programme as we are aware is bound to elicit some form of attitudinal response especially from the main recipients Form (1953) has argued that the measurement of such attitudes is a key to the success of the programme. To my knowledge, not much research has been done on the subject of students’ perception and their attitude, towards this special educational service despite the fact that its importance for individual and national development has long been recognised (Uba, 1986). In this era of student extremism, activism and cultism in our schools and campuses there is increasing pressure on school counsellors to justify their relevance by designing appropriate and proven programmes to meet the challenges posed by these negative tendencies. Violent and revolutionary student behaviour gives birth to social problems that culminate in rape, murder, extortion, destruction of property, insecurity and general breakdown of law and order. Many people argue that counselling when properly adapted has a potential capacity to mediate students’ excesses seen largely as a manifestation of lack of self-awareness, confused identity and personality maladjustment (Denga, 1982). Their argument is predicated on the humane assumption that well adjusted students are more likely to create positive and conducive environment for teaching and learning. However, it must he acknowledge that school counselling as a strategy for moderating students’ behaviour, depends largely on the perception of students and the reaction it elicits. In other words, counselling in itself cannot effect any positive change without being accepted, patronised and utilised by students. And the school counsellor whose success, according to Form, 1953), critically depends on the level of awareness of the counsellees cannot expect to reap much from his endeavours without the knowledge of the prevailing, sentiments and prejudices that students have towards him and his programmes.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Concept of Vocation

Vocation is a sequence of occupation, jobs and position in the life of the individual. In this research work, vocation and occupation are used interchangeably.Osuala (2004), defined vocation as a term commonly used to mean the type of work one does or occupation one pursues in earning his livelihood.

Umeano (1986) defined occupation as a relatively continuous pattern of activities that provide workers with livelihood, and defined their general social status. Occupation, he said, is synonymous with vocation and the distinction between occupations and status is difficult to make in concrete situations because occupation is the yardstick for measuring one’s social status.

Okorie and Ezeji (1988), stated that, a vocation has much to do with one’s way of life. Accordingly it is imperative that one choosesa vocation for which one is best fitted in terms of ability, interest, aptitudes, need, value and which invariably has the promise of bringing maximum joy, satisfaction and usefulness to him and the society at large.

Ebe (1992) sated that in modern society with its characteristic division of labour, specialization of functions, exchange of prevailing ideology, the overpowering majority of people engage in specific relative continuous activity in other to earn their living, and maintain a definite social status. This activity, he further said be designated a vocation.

Vocation is a group of jobs and positions essentially a group of task performed by one to earn a living. In other word, it is a sequence of occupations and jobs in the life of the individual.

In light of the school-to-work transition being described as a complex process, Borgen and Hiebert (2006) argue that the area of career counselling for adolescents is itself undergoing rapid changes. These changes are evidenced as both the expectations of adolescents, as well as educational and career opportunities are changing. Savickas (1999) argues that career counselling is crucial in this school-to-work transition because adolescents are confronted with having to readjust their perceptions of career and personal identity in order to minimise the difficulties that they may encounter during this process. Too often by focusing exclusively on academics, secondary schools neglect the need for adolescents to acquire greater competence in the knowledge and skills required for making informed career decisions (Gati, Krausz, & Osipow, 1996).

Traditionally the emphasis of career counselling focused on information dispensing from the career counsellor to the client, with little attention given to the large number of influences impacting the individual’s career development (Patton, 2005). However, in today’s society adolescents want to be collaboratively guided through the process of interpreting the information that they have gathered about themselves and possible career choices through various career counselling techniques.

There are consistent findings, which posit that career counselling is moderately to highly effective (Whiston, Sexton, & Lasoff, 1998). Studies have also found that individual and career classes are the most effective career counselling methods (Whiston, 2003). In contrast, there is clear evidence that career interventions that do not involve counselling, but rather focus on simply acquiring greater knowledge of career choices or computer-based tests, are not as effective as career interventions that incorporate a counselling component (Whiston, Brecheisen, & Stephens, 2003).

Research has provided insight into the critical components of career counselling, particularly in the area of career choice and decision-making. Brown and Krane (2000) found that career counselling was most effective when it contained the following five elements: individualised interpretation and feedback; information about relevant occupations; opportunities for necessary behaviours to be modelled; helping clients make realistic career choices in light of their social network; and written homework exercises. They found a positive relationship between the effectiveness of career counselling interventions and the number of critical components included in the process. In light of these key components of career counselling it was decided to investigate the impact of a career guidance counsellor who utilizes the majority of the five above-mentioned components.

2.2.2 Concept of Need and Vocational Needs.

According to Jean (2006) the concept of need is closely related to the situation of need. The need arises from the presence of a gap between the fulfillment of this need and the situation experienced by a person. This gap is called the situation of need. Thus, the recognition of a situation of need give rise to the need (to fulfill this gap).

When a person is in a condition below the required minimal criteria, this person is considered to be in a situation of need. The situation of need can thus be defined as the gap between the situation experienced by someone and the required minimal level of satisfaction. Vocational needs arise when an individual encounters difficulties engaging in their occupations of daily living.Environmental factors may further impact upon an individual’s engagement in occupation. These factors may be a result of the physical, cultural, social or institutional environments in which the individual engages in occupations. For example, an individual may want to participate in a leisure occupation such as football. However, the individual may not have the opportunities within his physical and social environments to be able to participate in this occupation. This is a vocational need.

Hodgetts (1979) stated that human behavior arises out of the needs that require satisfaction. As a result, the need will cause the individual to undertake some form of goal oriented behavior, which hopefully will satisfy the need. All human beings, whether children or adults have some needs. These needs are not luxuries or mere wishes. They are necessities which must be satisfied for normal and continued survival of the organism. It must be emphasize that needs become motive for action. Because needs must be satisfied, individuals will do whatever they can to ensure that their basic needs are met. Needs are therefore, important because they constitute a very potent basis for our actions. Behavior largely depends on an individual’s attempts to satisfy his needs.

In light of the school-to-work transition being described as a complex process, Borgen and Hiebert (2006) argue that the area of career counselling for adolescents is itself undergoing rapid changes. These changes are evidenced as both the expectations of adolescents, as well as educational and career opportunities are changing. Savickas (1999) argues that career counselling is crucial in this school-to-work transition because adolescents are confronted with having to readjust their perceptions of career and personal identity in order to minimize the difficulties that they may encounter during this process. Too often by focusing exclusively on academics, secondary schools neglect the need for adolescents to acquire greater competence in the knowledge and skills required for making informed career decisions (Gati, Krausz, & Osipow, 1996).

Traditionally the emphasis of career counselling focused on information dispensing from the career counsellor to the client, with little attention given to the large number of influences impacting the individual’s career development (Patton, 2005). However, in today’s society adolescents want to be collaboratively guided through the process of interpreting the information that they have gathered about themselves and possible career choices through various career counselling techniques.

2.2.3 Concept of Aspiration

Ngwoke (2004) opined that level of aspiration is a longing for what is above one, with advancement as its goal. Thus aspiration has to do with the desire to improve or rise above one’s present status.

A learner’s level of aspiration may be high especially if he had just succeeded, or it may be low if he had just met with failure. Aspiration may also be described as unrealistic especially when it is informed by limited knowledge and experience or inadequate assessment of opportunities available in the learning environment for its attainment. Some aspirations relate to what the learner wants to be or the ideal self-concept. While others relate to what the learner wants to accomplish or need achievement.

Katzel (1983) stated that a person’s level of aspiration is found in dynamic social salutation. Usually, those who experience success will try to approximate or improve upon their past performance while those who experience failure will stop trying and lower their aspirations.

2.2.4 Concept of Vocational Aspiration

Vocational aspiration is for young or older adults to either start a new career or enter a new vocation that they have never done. Vocational aspirations represent an individual’s orientation towards a desired career goal under ideal conditions. More simply stated vocational aspirations “provide information about an individual’s interests and hopes, unfitted by reality” (Hellenga, Aber, & Rhodes, 2002, 200).

Vocational aspiration is a person’s desired occupational or career aim. In other worlds, vocational aspiration is defined as the desire to achieve a particular vocation.People’s vocational aspiration can be categorized into limited number of types: The following are five examples of vocational aspirations: (Wise GEEK, 2009).

1. Traditional career success: This aspiration describes people who are motivated and inspired to advance their professional skills for achieving a progress in the organization’s hierarchy level. People who seek a position that has a potential to establish status responsibility, higher salary and authority.
2. Security: People who seek a solid job that represent stability and predictability. This aspiration describes people who prefer to work at workplaces that offer a long term secured position over advancement.
3. Expertise: This aspiration describes people who seek positions that offer technical/professional enhancement and technological interest.

Such people would like to become experts in their professional area.

1. Freedom: This aspiration describes people who seek individualism. Such a person wants to get autonomy for his thoughts and activities.

These are people who are motivated by values such as freedom and independence.

1. Balance: This aspiration describes people who consider their job/career equal or lower as compared to other non-work values and interests such as family, religious and prefer jobs that respect their interests on their personal life.

According to Gottfredson (1981), vocational aspiration is the single occupation named as one’s best alternative at any given time. As perceptions of compatibility and accessibility change, so too may a person’s assessment of which alternative is the best, even though the social space may be stable. Vocational aspiration is commonly described as one’s specific desired career choice.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

2.3.1 Need Hierarchy Theory

The need hierarchy theory according to Maslow (1943) is based on two assumptions that: Man is a wanting being, there is always some needs he wants to satisfy: Secondly man’s needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance with those of the lower order requiring basic satisfaction. Maslow presented the need satisfaction process in hierarchical form, namely:

Physiological Needs: These are basic primary needs arising out of physiological or biological tension for sustaining human life. They include food, water, clothing, shelter, sleep and sexual satisfaction. Maslow maintained that unless these are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life other needs do not become important to start acting as motivation.

Security or safety Need: This need become predominant after the physiological needs are gratified. It includes needs to be free from physical danger and threats, fear of loss of jobs and property.

Love and Social Needs: Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. Such needs include love, friendship, and social interaction.

Esteem Needs: The need for esteem is to attain recognition from others which include a feeling of self-worth and confidence in the individual.

It is an urge for achievement, prestige, status and power. They include the desire for self-respect, prestige and self-confidence.

Self-actualization Needs: This is the highest level of need in Maslow’s hierarchy and is achieved as a motivator when all other needs have been reasonably fulfilled. At this level, the person seeks challenging work assignments that allows for creativity and opportunities for personal growth and advancement. Thus maintaining one’s potential and accomplishment in life. If the work place does not offer the opportunity for higher need satisfaction, alternative place of work which will satisfy such need will be looked out for.

2.3.2 Need Theory

Hoppock (1957). Is a major proponent of need theories of vocational choice. He emphasized the role of occupation as a source of need gratification. According to Hoppock (1957):

Occupations are chosen to meet need… career development begin when we first become aware that occupation can help us to meet our needs…vocational choice of an individual is subject to change if he discovers that another occupation is more satisfying.

Roe’s(1954) need theory like Hoppock is anchored on recognition of existence of wants and desires which stimulate an individual to prefer one occupation to another. Roe’s theory is based on the choice of occupation to satisfy needs which are motivational forces. Roe employs Maslow’s hierarchical classification of needs to explain vocational process. She classified needs into three major categories namely the lower order needs, middle order and higher order needs. Needs for which even minimum satisfaction is rarely achieved will, if higher order, become in effect expunged or if lower order, prevent the appearance of higher order needs and will become dominant and restricting motivators.

Roe in addition, also holds the view that family influences affect vocational choices. She claimed that needs develop from attitude of parents towards child’s early formative experience. The cold, avoiding, rejecting parents who either neglect the child’s physical or emotional requirements breed adult who tend towards things oriented and shun persons-interactions jobs. With this classification are scientists and psychologists. Other type of parents, Roe posited are over protective, over demanding parents based on love which makes people reared from this environment to be induced to person’s oriented jobs; like teaching, social welfare and humanistic professions. The need theory can be used for providing the basis for intervention strategies. It explains how people choose occupations to meet their needs. An individual aspires to occupation that will be more satisfying.

2.4 Career Indecision

Career indecision is a term commonly used when referring to career development problems, specifically problems that involve making career-related decisions (Rojewski, 1994). Research into career development has devoted much attention to the categorization of various problems related to career indecision, suggesting that career decisions have the following features: “there is an individual who has to make a decision; there are a number of alternatives to select from; and there are many attributes that are considered in the comparison and evaluation of the various alternatives” (Gati et al., 1996, p. 511).

One of the reasons why career indecision is arguably one of the central issues in career psychology is because of the high financial and psychological costs that occur as a result of career indecision (Gordon & Meyer, 2002). However, it is important to be aware that not all individuals who experience career indecision are necessarily anxious or uncomfortable. Furthermore, career indecision that is seen in a developmental light can serve to motivate individuals to explore numerous career options and engage in goal-directed behaviors. In the literature on career decision-making there is often confusion regarding what constitutes career indecision versus career indecisiveness. Osipow (1999) draws a distinction between the notion of indecisiveness as a trait and career indecision. He argues that indecisiveness is defined as a chronic and permanent inability to make decisions across different situations, whereas career indecision refers to a normal transitory phase in the process of making a particular decision. However, career indecision can fluctuate from person to person depending on a number of factors, like the need for career-related information, career readiness, and self-efficacy (Creed et al., 2005). Individuals typically experience a certain level of developmental career indecision when they feel like they have limited experiences and knowledge regarding the world of work (Gordon & Meyer, 2002).

Individuals who present with career indecision should not be considered as a homogenous group, because the level of career indecision and difficulties that individuals encounter in the decision making process is unique to each individual (Gordon & Meyer, 2002). Therefore, adopting one specific career guidance counselling approach in order to address career indecision is not always feasible, considering the diversity of career-related problems individuals face. Hence, the benefit of conducting research with a career guidance counsellor who firstly, adopts an eclectic approach to career guidance counseling and secondly, who places a great emphasis on narrative techniques.

2.5 CAREER COUNSELING

The word career refers to the activities and position involved in vocation, occupation, and jobs as well as to related activities associated with an individual’s life time of work.

Career counseling is very fundamental to students’ successful and meaningful living. Every student desire to be identified with a good profession, but this could only be achieved througheffective counseling onthe choices ofcareer to maximizetheir potential. Career, though crucial to mankind, occupies almost all entire human life. This is due to the fact that careercontribute enormously to allhuman activities, buildingindividuals high self-esteem, satisfaction and adjusting to healthy life. It equally assists students to discover their innate potentials and acquire the needed knowledge for building lifelong profession. In view of this, adequate utilization of career counseling is required in public secondary schools in Nigeria if the nation’s goals are to be attained.

The term counseling includes work with individuals and with relationships which may be developmental, crisis support, psychotherapeutic, guiding or problem solving. Furthermore, counseling task also involve giving the client an opportunity to explore, discover and clarify ways of living more satisfying and resourcefully as cited in.

2.6PROBLEMS AFFECTING GUIDANCE AND COUNSELING IN NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The great importance and significance attached to guidance and counseling program in our educational system makes it necessary for an effective guidance and counseling services in our present secondary schools. This notwithstanding however, is likely to face a lot of problems in term of implementation or providing the guidance and counseling masters opportunity to function properly in the school system. Such problems include the following;

1. Drug Addition:This is a major problem teachers, parent’s school administrations and counselors find hard to cope with and resolving it, for it is usually not easy to get rid of this habit formation when students deviates from counselor’s advice.
2. The Parent Teacher Association (PTA): This association provides room for dialogue between the teachers and the parents. This can be used as a yardstick that measures the progress of guidance and counseling programme in the state, but lack of such association has been posing threat to the guidance and counseling programme in schools in places where the association is established, parents tends to neglect the attendance of such meeting whenever they are invited, as such they cannot understand the problems of their children as well as their achievements in schools.
3. The influence of peer groups: The influence of peer grouped may hinder the progress of guidance and counseling programme among students where the child has been influenced by his friends to make choices of subjects and careers selection based on the interest of his peers. Being his/her friends they may decide to choose the same subject not necessarily considering their interest and capabilities.
4. Inadequacy of Guidance Counselor in Secondary Schools: In some schools one may find that there is only one or no counselor handling the guidance and counseling programme and one person cannot effectively perform these functions satisfactorily due to the work load, while in other schools career masters are asked to carry them out.

2.7 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Fabumi (1982) studied the vocational aspirations of secondary school students in Sokoto Municipality, Sokoto state. The study sought to find out the vocations to which students mostly aspired. He used a total of 208 subjects of 108 boys and 100 girls from 10 co-educational schools, comprising secondary class five students who were given Carte Blanche response option in their choice of occupation. The results showed that the occupations most aspired to by students were medicine and engineering with 22.76%. Teaching was next with 10.68%, followed by accountancy with 9.3% and law 1.08%. Abiri (1977) investigated Nigerian adolescents’ academic and occupational aspiration in Ibadan. The study sought to find out if Nigerian adolescents are realistic in their vocational aspirations. He used a total of 1,254 subjects of 722 boys and 532 girls in 13 grammar schools and 8 coeducational institutions. The sample was drawn from form one, three and five students. The age ranges of the students were from 11 to 21 and the mean age of form one, three and five students were 13.5, 15.5 and 17.5 respectively. The instrument used for data collection was researcher made questionnaire. Simple percentages and chi-squares were also employed in the data analysis. The result showed that nursing was popular among the young girls (10 .4%) in form one, but decreased in popularity progressively among the older girls to (2.7%) in form five. The occupational and professional status desired by boys in decreasing order of magnitude were medicine, pharmacy, engineering, science, masonry, building contractor, teaching or educational jobs and business administration. Medicine and law are seen to be popular among younger student than older students. The pattern of occupations desired by girls was not radically different from those of boys; except that nursing was perceived as exclusively feminine occupation. Conversely engineering, military service was hardly desired by girls. While medicine, teaching and law were equally popular among boys and girls. He concluded from the study that Nigerian adolescents were unrealistic in their aspirations. They made no allowance for their abilities. Onwuamanam (1992) investigated the occupational prestige and aspirations in ten secondary schools in Imo state. He sampled 560 students in form four and five. 306 of the students were males and 254 were females. Out of the 560 students, 254 were drawn from urban secondary schools and the rest 306 were drawn from six rural schools. He administered a researcher made questionnaire for data collection. He used percentages, rank order, correlation, chi- square and t-test for data analysis. The result showed that occupations mostly rated were engineering, University teaching and medicine. The occupations least rated were dancing, art, painting and beautician. The male subjects had higher occupational aspirations than female subjects. Such can be accounted for by the differences in their traditional and social roles expectations. Ikeme (1981) studied the factors associated with career choice in Anambra State. The study sought to find out whether students know which career best suited their capabilities, interest and abilities and if the students are aware of the various job options available. In this study he used 342 students comprising 273 boys and 69 girls, within the range of 11-29 years for the study drawn from both urban and rural schools in Anambra state. She modified and used Bakare’s (1970) student problem inventory (SPI) adding some items of the vocational aspect, to the original inventory. The result of the study showed a significant difference in the number of problems which students encountered in their career choices in urban and rural schools. Those in urban schools indicated fewer problems than their counterparts in the rural schools. The difference she explained, was as a result of opportunities such as acquiring variety of information in the urban area, this placed the urban students at advantage over the rural students. She also identified lack of gender differences as related to career choice. She explained this as a result of increasing number of educated parents who now send their children to school regardless of their sex. Ekong (1983) conducted a study on occupational preference. He randomly selected 500 students of which 250 were males and 250 were females in form five from ten secondary schools in Calabar Municipality. The schools included two boys’ schools, three girls’ schools and five coeducational schools with boy age range of 16 to 21 and girls from 15 to 20 years. He used Bakare’s (1977) motivation for occupational preference scale (MOPS) to collect data which he analyzed with percentages, t- test and relative ranking statistical methods. The result showed that significant sex differences in the effect of external influences, extrinsic reward oriented value, self expression and people oriented value did not exist in the vocational preference of boys and girls, even though there were relative differences between the two sexes. The occupations chosen by male subjects in a decreasing order of popularity were law, business management, medicine, teaching and engineering. Similar order in popularity ranking of occupations by females shows management and teaching. Efobi[1980] in his examination of youths’ job aspirations used 240 students, made up of 138 boys and 102 girls selected fro m six secondary schools. Their ages ranged from 14 to 25. He used questionnaires and interview to collect data. The finding shows that 63.2% of the subjects choose occupations out of interest, 43% of the boys and 28.4% of the girls were influenced by high salary in their choice of jobs, and the remaining 24.3% and 6.8% of the boys and the girls respectively were influenced by parents in making their occupational decisions. The occupation chosen by the subjects and the corresponding percentages of the subjects who made the choice in decreasing order of magnitude were as follows: Teaching 22%, law 18.8%, medicine 15%, engineering 10% and business administration 10%.

2.7 Summary of Review of Literature

Vocational needs arise when an individual encounters difficulties engaging in their occupations of daily living. For example, an individual may want to participate in a leisure occupation such as football.However, the individual may not have the opportunities within his physical and social environments to be able to participate in this occupation. This is a vocational need. Vocational aspiration is a person’s desired occupation or career. Maslow maintains that need theory stresses that individuals differ and so are their needs, wants and desire. Human beings select occupation that is in line with their personal needs and that the nature of desires and wants determine the individual vocational aspiration which will satisfy some of his basic needs.

Super represents vocational aspiration as a process grounded largely in personal interest and capabilities, with little attention to external circumstances or cultural pressures. General interest leads to a specific vocational goal, which in turn leads to pursuit and attainment of that goal.

Ginsberg et al were concerned with the vocational aspiration as a lifelong developmental process which starts from childhood till death. They classified vocational development into three distinct stages namely, fantasy, tentative and realistic stages.

Youths seem to be ignorant about their vocational needs and aspirations. Because of their ignorance, they aspire to prefer professions like medicine, law, architecture, engineering and pharmacy without taken into consideration their interests, aptitudes, and capabilities. This shows that they make idealistic vocational aspirations. The idealistic vocational aspirations have been defined as the occupational goal for which the individual is free to choose but is not sure of getting it achieved.

Literature reviewed shows that most youths are ignorant, ill-informed, uninformed and sometimes misinformed of their vocational needs and aspirations. This seems to create a research based knowledge gap, which this present study will empirically fill.