TEACHERS’ MOTIVATION AS A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVE SECONDARY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual framework
2.2.1 Definition of Motivation
Motivation has been a subject of concern in the past twenty years and has established itself as an integral part in current organizational settings. Motivation is quite complex subject to comprehend thus placing awareness to the fact that several factors influence employees’ performance in a particular organization.
This implies that what motivates one worker in one organization was not definitely motivate the other employee even within the same organization Due to this complexity, various definitions have been put forward and only a few of them were briefly examined.
McShane et al (2003, p. 132) defines motivation as “...A factor that exists in an individual which has the potential to affect the way, strength and eagerness of behaving towards work”. This definition of motivation has been supported by Petri & Govern (2003,) who reiterated that, “motivation is the thought that explains the propelling force in an individual that explains differences in intensity of behavior”.
Motivated employees were willing to devote time to a certain level of commitment for a particular objective in an organization. Certain actions which include changing jobs that employees perform, bringing down the levels of hierarchy and relegating many employees in the motivation process are significant enough to damage the levels of trust and commitment necessary for employees to perform above work requirements. Moreover, employee needs are changing as younger generations of employees have different expectations for their work than older workers. This is as a result of globalization which has made workforce variations of the complex issue of motivation. (McShane & Von Glinow 2003, p. 132).
Motivation is the thought that explains the propelling force in an individual that explains differences in intensity of behavior” (Petri & Govern 2004,). There are two types of motivation present in the workplace: intrinsic and extrinsic (Adam 2007, p. 230). By that it means that job related variables affecting motivation have intrinsic and extrinsic motivational values that drive the employees to perform. Given that most employees are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated simultaneously, hence a conclusion can be made that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are not mutually exclusive (Deci & Ryan 2000).
2.2.2 Importance of Motivation in Secondary school administrations
Motivation is an important in the teaming process. Motivation implies arousal and maintenance of interest in the learning or doing an activity. For example, motivation plays a vital role in learning by bringing the learners to the proper frame of mind for learning. It concentrates the attention and energy of a person on activity or knowledge to the learnt in (Bhatia 1997). One of the major tasks of heads of school is to motivate staff in the organization to perform at high levels. This implies getting the staff to work hard, come to work regularly and make positive contributions to the organization’s mission. However, job performance depends on the environment within which the work is operating as well as on motivation itself (Griffin 2008; Mcshane, et al 2000 ;). It is thus, an important tool that is often under- utilized by heads of educational institutions.
Heads of organizations use motivation tools in workplace to inspire teachers to work both individually and in groups to produce the best possible results for education in most efficient and effective manner. Some of the motivation is generated from outside, while others come from within an individual. Employees by either of these sources of motivation to meet their individual as well as organizational goals. In this regard it is the duty of heads of institutions and sponsoring ministry of education to carefully identify and address these motivating forces (Griffin et al 2000, Griffin 2008).
2.2 Theories on Work Motivation
For the purpose of this study, the research considered the following work motivation theories to be vital in this study: the Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and Herzberg’s Motivation–hygiene theory and each was discussed in some details.
2.3.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Different scholars have put forth different explanations on how motivation can be achieved within a company or an organization. Prominent amongst them is Maslow with the theory of “Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs”. Consequently, Maslow in 1943 reasoned that human beings have an internal need pushing them on towards self actualization (fulfillment) and personal superiority. Maslow came up with the view that there are five different levels of needs and once we happen to satisfy a need at one stage or level of the hierarchy it has an influence on our behavior. At such levels our behavior tends to diminish, we now put forth a more powerful influence on our behavior for the need at the next level up the hierarchy.
Firstly, individuals are motivated by Physiological needs: By Maslow this physiological needs forms the basic need for survival and this may include food, warmth, clothing and shelter. When people are hungry, don’t have shelter or clothing, there are more motivated to fulfill this need because these needs become the major influence on their behavior. But on the other hand when people don’t have a deficiency in those basic needs (physiological needs), their needs tend to move to the second level where it is equally seen by Maslow as the highest order of needs. The second level is seen as the security needs: Security tends to be the most essential need for people at this level.
This is expressed in safety in the employee’s health and family. The third level of needs by Maslow was the social needs. When feeling secure and safe at work, employees placed job relations as their focus that is trying to build up a good friendship, love and intimacy. As we keep moving up the ladder have self-esteem needs: This fourth level of needs by Maslow presents the recognition to be accepted and valued by others.
The highest or last level of Maslow’s need is self-actualization needs: Self actualization was to develop into more and more what one is to become all that one is competent of becoming. Figure 2.1 illustrates Maslow´s five hierarchy of needs.
Figure 2. 1Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Source: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs)
2.3.2 Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
Herzberg (1959) had the notion that those factors which cause job satisfaction are the opposite to those that causes job dissatisfaction. Herzberg survey was carried from a group of accountants and engineers. Herzberg in his studies came up with the conclusion that employees are influenced by two factors that are; the motivators and hygiene factors.
Motivators create job satisfactions which include achievement, recognition, autonomy and other intrinsic aspects when there are fulfilled. On the other hand he came up with the hygiene factors which will enhance dissatisfaction when they are not fulfilled. Motivators are those factors which provide a feeling of job satisfaction at work. These factors influence the ways of work in a company; for example giving responsibility to carry an enlarge task within an organization and providing the person with the necessary conditions will lead to growth and advancement to higher level tasks. Motivators are those factors which come from within an individual that is intrinsic. These factors are related to work content (Griffin 2008, p, 440) and include achievements, interest in the task, responsibility of enlarging task, growth and advancement to higher level.
Herzberg hygiene factors create a suitable work environment though could not increase in satisfaction. For instance low pay can cause job dissatisfaction which will affect employees’ performance. Hygiene factors are essential to make sure that the work environment does not develop into a disgruntle situation. Typical hygiene factors (also called extrinsic factors) are salary, working condition, status, company policies and administration (Saiyadain 2009, 158).
In summary, motivation factors are related to work content, while hygiene factors are related to work environment as summarized in figure 2.2
Table 2.1 Motivation and Hygiene Factors
Motivation factors
(Intrinsic) Hygiene factors
(Extrinsic)
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Responsibility
• Work itself
• Advancement
• Personal growth • Company/organization policy and administration
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions
• Salary/wages
• Job security
• Status
• Benefits
Sources: Griffin (2008, p. 440)
2.3.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation stems from the word “internal” which implies motivation comes from within the individual or from the activity itself and positively affects behavior, performance, and well being. In other words, this type of motivation is self generated when intrinsically motivated; the individual will strive to satisfy three innate psychological needs: namely needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan 2000, p. 227). Such employees like to have a substantial amount of freedom to make decisions, a channel to impress creativity, opportunities for advancement, recognition for good work, to be treated in a polite and thoughtful manner, and possess the position to take on tasks that are both challenging and meaningful of which he/she would feel an inherent sense of accomplishment upon successful completion. For instance an employee who has encountered an intriguingly difficultly problem is unlikely to surrender just because the problem appears to be unsolvable. Instead the employee will put forth his /her rest efforts, say by investing more time taking the task home; as he/she views the problem as challenging and worthwhile to complete. In fact many researchers have acknowledged and proven that intrinsic motivation does have a positive long-term effect and is regarded as the “true motivation” (Lai. 2009).
2.3.2.2 Extrinsic Motivation
In contrast, extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual in exchange for external rewards and is not derived from the work itself (Deci & Ryan 2000). Extrinsic motivation takes the form of tangible monetary or non- monetary incentives such as pay rises, gift certificates, material possessions, vacation trips wall plagues, movie tickets and prestige evaluations among others. For example, an employee may work doubly hard to finish a project before the scheduled deadline because of the tangible reward that accompanies for working effectively. While extrinsic rewards can act as positive reinforce, they have been found to be an effective motivation tool for short-term gains (Adam 2007, p. 232). That is, meeting immediate goals, it may have long-term adverse effect / impacts on employee’s behavior.) Addressed similar needs.
Considerable research work indicates that employees who do not expect to receive extrinsic rewards outperform those who expert reward (Kohn 1993). However, extrinsic rewards can still be useful if administered under the right conditions/ circumstances such as the absence or low levels of intrinsic motivation or when the role is unchallenging and mundane (routine). In case of secondary school administrations, intrinsic motivation of teachers can be measured in terms of job satisfaction derived from teaching, enjoyment of teaching, the challenging and competitive nature of teaching, recognition, career achievement and control over others. Extrinsic motivation of teachers on the other hand, can be measured in terms of externally administered rewards like salary, free accommodation, free meals, weekly duty and extra teaching allowances, advance payments in case of financial problems, leave of absence and free medical care among others.
In today’s environment extrinsic motivation is not the most important in the past as intrinsic motivation though it is necessary for overall employee’s motivation process (Edmund and Nilsson 2007).
In summary, over-reliance on extrinsic rewards risk undermining intrinsic motivation and inhibits creativity innate desire to do well is distrusted.
2.4 Motivation and Performance
Motivation is defined as “the forces within a person that affects his or her direction, intensity and persistence of voluntary behavior (Mcshane et al 2000 p. 33). Robbins and
Coulter (2005, p 392) suggest that motivation refers to the “process that account for an individual’s willingness to accept higher levels of effort to each organizational goals conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need”. If managers today are to assume responsibility to lead employees towards attaining organizational goals, it is then crucial for them to comprehend the psychological process of motivation.
In contrast, Mol (2005) believes that the definition of motivation will be more convincing when the word “motivation” is distinguished from “movement”. When an employee is assigned to a task that he/she dislikes yet willing to do so merely for the sake of being rewarded, then he/she is said to be moved. However, when the employee engages in a task because he/she takes delight in the work, then motivation is said to occur. So, from the context of the relationship between motivation and performance, the notion that employees who are highly motivated are much more likely to be high performers is widespread in management and organizational psychology literature. For example, Lawler (1994) and Buchanan and Huczynski (1997) indicated that motivation is the single most important determinant of individual job performance. According to Nelson and Quick (2003), motivation factors lead to positive mental health and challenge people to grow, contribute to the work environment and invest themselves in the organization.
2.4.1 Motivation of Teachers and Performance in Developing Countries
There is a wide range of views about teacher motivation in Africa and South Asia, most of which are country specific. However, there appear to be mounting concerns that unacceptably high proportions of teachers working in public school systems in many developing countries are poorly motivated due to a combination of low morale and job satisfaction, poor incentives, and inadequate controls and other behavioral sanctions. For example, Bennell (2004) reports the 2000 EFA Country Assessment for Pakistan which noted that poor teacher motivation is a colossal problem, which is seriously compounded by political interference‘.
In Nigeria, information about the teachers ‘job performance is little documented, yet job performance of teachers is important in areas like classroom management, participation in sports, guidance and counseling, conducting fieldwork among other activities. Cheptoek (2000) carried out a study to establish whether job satisfaction influences job performance among non- academic staff at Islamic University in Uganda. However, the study was not directly related to the teachers‘ role of teaching (job performance). A Malawian study by Kadzamira (2006) found that primary and secondary teacher motivation and job satisfaction were strongly determined by both pecuniary factors, such as levels of pay and other material benefits, and non-pecuniary factors, in particular living and working conditions of service.
Another in Uganda by Aacha (2010) examined whether the motivation of primary teachers had any effect on their morale to perform and the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on the performance of teachers. It found that there was a significant positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and performance of teachers in the surveyed primary schools. Furthermore a positive relationship was also revealed between extrinsic motivation and performance of teachers, implying that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations affected the performance of teachers. However, the study only examined primary school teachers at work and hence the relevance of this study in regard is to examine the effect of motivation factors on teachers ‘performance in Nigeria secondary school administrations – a case of public secondary schools in Ezza L.G.A. of Ebonyi state.
2.5 Empirical Literature Review
Several researchers have examined factors that motivate workers and their subsequent impact organizational performance. This section was present a review of some more recent empirical studies on motivation and work performance in various industries including education.
Most recently, Aacha (2010) conducted a study on the effects of motivation on the performance of primary school teachers in Kimaanya-Kyabakuza division, Masaka district, Uganda. The study specifically sought to find out whether the motivation of primary teachers had any effect on their morale to perform and the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on the performance of teachers. This study used a sample of 135 respondents which included teachers, head teachers, school management committee members (SMC) and the Masaka Municipal Education Officer (MEO). The research findings revealed that the performance of primary school teachers was good despite the fact that their motivation was inadequate. Besides, the majority of the teachers performed their activities with high morale as evidenced from reporting early at school, regular testing and examination of pupils and high turn up of teachers in staff meetings and school occasions among others. It also indicated that there was a significant positive relationship between intrinsic motivation and performance of teachers in the surveyed primary schools. Interestingly a positive relationship was also revealed between extrinsic motivation and performance of teachers, implying that extrinsic motivation affected the performance of teachers.
Geofrey (2010) conducted a study which investigated public universities’ academic staff performance with reference to the context of motivation using Makerere University in Uganda as a case study. It examined the effect of motivational factors on lectures’ teaching, research activities, and community service. The findings revealed that, motivational factors, significantly affected lecturers teaching and research activities at Makerere University. It also found out that motivational factors did not have a significant effect on lecturers’ community service activities. It was concluded that, motivational factors do have a significant effect on lecturers’ teaching and research activities.
2.6 Conceptual Framework
Figure 1.1 is the conceptual framework showing the relationships between independent and dependent variables, as well as intervening variables of research problem. The independent variables are conceptualized as motivation factors which include both extrinsic variables such as salaries, free meals, allowances and accommodation, and intrinsic variables such as job satisfaction, promotion, recognition and flexibility (Hertzberg 1960).
In contrast, the dependent variable of teachers’ performance conceptualized to be preparing teaching materials, regular and early reporting to work, attending school functions and meeting, supervision of school activities, participating in extracurricular activities and regular student assessment (Mcshane et al 2000, Adam 2007; Aacha 2010) Other factors such as other government policy, economic climate and cultural difference of teachers has been taken into consideration because of their moderating effect on the dependent variables. Essentially, the Herzberg two factor theory of motivation: the motivators (intrinsic) and hygiene (extrinsic) factors is the guiding theory in this research.