THE EFFECT OF E-LEARNING ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

 Conceptual Framework

 Theoretical Framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Concept Of e-Learning

The term e-Learning means something different to almost everyone who uses it. Some use the term to refer to pieces of content packaged using technical infrastructures. Some think only of webbased self-study, while others realize e-Learning can encompass real-time learning and collaboration. Almost all also agree that e-Learning is of strategic importance. Almost all also agree that eLearning is an effective method that should be blended into a corporation current learning style. E-Learning refers to the use of internet / ICTs i.e. Information and Communication Technology to enhance and support teaching and learning process. It is a way of using wireless and internet technologies to deliver a broad array of training solutions. E-Learners access the learning from computers via the internet or an intranet, or through a hand held device like mobile phone, palm pilot. In 2001 Marc Rosenberg suggested the following definition of e-Learning as “the use of Internet technologies to deliver a broad array of solutions that enhance knowledge and performance.”. In less than two short years this definition has expanded to include wireless as well as internet technologies with the two technologies often working together to delivery focused learning to the problem site. We are all familiar with classroom-based learning (c-Learning) which is face-to-face group learning led by an instructor or subject matter expert. In e-Learning environments learners interact with learning materials, their instructors and other learners from various locations and often at various times using network technologies. So by its nature, e-learning offers significant flexibility as to when and how learning occurs. E-learning can include independent, facilitated, or collaborative approaches to learning. Independent learning refers to each individual learner completing learning activities or modules on their own, on their own schedule and in their own environment. The learner is independent of a facilitator and the other learners. This does not mean 19 that the learner does not have access to other resources such as a facilitator or coach, but the learner is in control of whether they contact them, when they contact them, and on main reasons. Collaborative learning refers to working with other learners in an online environment. A typical example is an email discussion with other learners on a particular topic or everyone posting to a course room or a forum educational group discussing on a particular subject matter, topic or issue. On the other hand, Facilitated learning is designed to be completed through interaction with instructors or coaches. There are several ways and methods to achieve this task, for example, a learner might complete a section of learning on-line then discuss key concepts via e-mail with the instructor or with classmates. E-Learning can be synchronous (meaning learners are experiencing the learning at the same time) or asynchronous (meaning learners are experiencing the learning at different times) or it can incorporate both drawing on the strengths of each. Independent learning is, by definition, asynchronous. Facilitated and collaborative can be either asynchronous or synchronous. Salleh, Oye and Iahad, 2010 described e-learning as the use of Information and Communication Technology e.g. Internet, computer, mobile phone, Learning Management System (LMS), Radios, Televisions and other to enhance teaching and learning activities. They see elearning as a unifying term used to describe the fields on online learning, technology delivered instructions and web – based training. It can also be defined as “a generic term covering a wide set of ICT technology-based learning, virtual classrooms, digital collaboration and networking” (Hambrecht, 2000; Kaplan Leisero’s online glossary). The E-Content Report (2004) describes elearning “as an umbrella term describing any type of learning that depends on or is enhanced by electronic communication using the latest information and communication technologies (ICT)”. Also, others refer to it as teaching and learning that is web-enabled (Rosenberg 2001: p 28-29, Govindasamy 2002; Garrison & Anderson 2003: p 2). Building on the above descriptions, the Europe Promoting Digital Literacy Initiative describes it as “the use of new multimedia 20 technologies and internet for improving the quality of learning by means of access to resources and services, and long distance collaborations and exchanges”. In addition, the Commonwealth of learning in 1998 described e-learning in two ways: i.As the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) to core institutional functions such as administration, materials development and distribution, course delivery and tuition, and the provision of learner services such as advising, prior learning assessment and programme planning. ii. As an organisation that has been created through alliances and partnerships to facilitate teaching and learning to occur without itself being involved as a direct provider of instruction. Recognising these elaborate definitions that have been given e-learning over the years, one must point out that, the scope of such learning is unpleasantly broad. The globally available definitions may however create confusion as a result of the fact that, not only that the subject is equally new to course producers, to technology providers and to the end-users (i.e. the learners), but it has not actually found its common ground and market position yet (E-Content Report,2004). Recognizably, the huge emphasis that has been given e-learning, especially by leading technology providers, might have resulted in the term rather being abused. However, as technology and business evolve, so does terminology, while other equally valid terms are likely to persist, elearning seems to have finally captured the field.

The Power Of e-Learning

The idea of distance learning has its roots in the correspondence schools of the early 20th century. E-learning, online learning or computer-based learning, as a new version of distance learning, is applied via the Internet technologies and involves the educational activities, which do not require the presence of the teacher and learner at the same time and place. Yucel (2006) exemplified e-learning applications as follows:

1. E-examination: students are administered many proof exams in the internet environment before the formal exams, so they can determine their approximate readiness levels.

2. E-drills: The Internet-based drill softwares with animations and intensive student-computer interaction can create an effective and productive studying atmosphere for students. For example, students can study on the softwares with or without sound effects.

3. E-book and E-television: the contents of the course books and TV programs could be presented on the Internet as e-books and e-television.

4. E-counseling: students are allowed to ask questions to their academic counselors related to their course contents on the Internet.

5. E-sound book: the e-sound book application enables especially the visually retarded students to listen to the course book contents on the Internet.

The important point in e-learning applications is the ability to educate the learner through technological tools whereas in traditional classroom teaching, the learners have to be together with

the educator. E-learning provides opportunity for participants to reflect and translate learning out of their practical application of explicit knowledge (Ivergard & Hunt, 2004). E-learning provides the

learner the chance to decide when to learn as well as how fast and how much to learn; and enables them to contact the teachers via e-mail or forums. Since there is no need to go to a campus, they have no expenses for accommodation or transportation. Therefore, e-learning terminates the limitation of time and place while providing learning environments with lower expenses. E-learning is particularly attractive to adult learners because of its flexibility (Arbaugh&Duray, 2002).

Yucel (2006) pointed out the advantages of e-learning when compared to the classroom education as follows:

1. Students have the chance to decide how long they want to be educated. E-learning enables the individual to plan and direct his/her own learning process, so each student takes the responsibility of his/her own learning.

2. Students do not have to pay expenses for transportation or accommodation because the forums, created within the e-learning system, provide students with a discussion environment where problems are solved cooperatively in chat rooms.

3. An effective e-learning system enables a student to determine and process his/her learning style, content, aim, current knowledge and individual skills. With the cost of implementing e-learning tools falling, more governments, businesses, and schools have added online courses and other forms of distance learning to their organizations

(Lynch, 2008).

E-Learning And Pedagogy

F-E-learning can be viewed as an alternative to the face-to-face teaching method or as a complement to it. E-learning usually allows the student a greater choice as well as responsibility for their own learning (Collis, 2008; Oye et al, 2011). E-learning can be viewed as "disruptive technology" and as a new paradigm for learning (Christensen, Anakwe, & Kessler, 2001). Disruptive technologies look at problems in completely new and creative ways. E-learning can change the methods of learning and has the capability to overcome the barriers of time, distance, and economics (Vrasidas & McIsaac, 2000). E-learning challenges the traditional ways of teaching and learning, enables new alliances between various educational and commercial entities, and presents new ways of solving old problems. For example, the role of teachers is likely to change from importers of knowledge to facilitators of knowledge gaining process. Synchronous interaction, such as chat and conferencing requires the "physical" or "virtual" presence of participants at the same time. This has the benefit that collaboration is done in real time and delays of communication are avoided. Asynchronous interaction, such as email, blogs, and threaded discussions has the advantage of allowing the students to access the learning resources any time. Asynchronous mode of communication is useful when parties have to communicate and share information (i.e. intermediate software progress modules) between the interaction sessions, it is important to reflect and discover. Asynchronous interaction is also beneficial when students are geographically dispersed and it is difficult to assemble them at the same time. Reflection can reinforce and enhance learning. Reflection is a form of mental processing (a form of thinking) which we use to fulfill a purpose or to achieve some anticipated outcome. It is applied to relatively complicated or unstructured ideas for which there is no obvious solution; the equivocality resulting from no "single" obvious solution to a software design project requires additional processing of knowledge and understanding and possibly display of emotions (Moon,1999). Group reflection is an extremely important part of helping students retain what they learn, provide feedback on their performance, and guide them on how to improve their performance on the next group situation (Educators, 2006).

Purpose Of e-Learning

E-learning in education is the wholesome integration of modern telecommunications equipment and ICT resources, particularly the internet, into the education system. Shavinina (2001) defines ICT as all the digital technologies, including: computer, scanner, printer, telephone, internet, digital satellite system (DSS), direct broadcast satellite (DBS), pocket-switching, fiber optic cables, laserdisc, microwaves, and multi-media systems for collection, processing, storage and dissemination of information all-over the world. Tracy (1995) defines the internet as the international network of communications in which computers in the Wide Area Network (WAN)

talk to each other. E-learning as an aspect of ICT is relatively new in Nigeria educational system. It is a departure from the conventional approach in curriculum implementation. The main purpose of e-learning is to transform the old methods and approaches to curriculum implementation and not to silence the curriculum or to extinguish or erase the contents of curriculum. E-learning is driven by the curriculum. It should follow the curriculum and should not rob the curriculum of its essence. E-learning should ensure effective pedagogy and curriculum implementation in the computer age. According to Nicholls and Nicholls (1980), Mkpa (1987), and Offorma (2002), curriculum implementation is the planning and execution of the contents of curriculum in order to bring about certain changes in the behavior of the learners and the assessment of the extent to which the changes take place. The primary purposes of implementation is to achieve the objectives of instruction, and achieve retention and transfer of knowledge. Richmond (1997) observed that, there is a great link between the curriculum and ICT and that there are three major areas that technology can influence learning, they are as follow:

i. Presentation, demonstration and the implementation of data using productivity tools.

ii. Use of curriculum – specific applications such as educational games, drills and practice, simulations, tutorials, virtual laboratory visualizations and graphics, representations of abstract concepts, musical composition and expert systems.

iii. Use of information and resources on CD-Rom, online encyclopedia, interactive maps and atlases, electronic journals and other references.

E-learning is an instructional medium that permits alternative approaches to curriculum implementation in an ICT age. Similarly, the role of ICT in curriculum implementation is recognized by the Nigeria National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004, p. 53) where it stated that, “the government shall provide facilities and necessary infrastructures for the promotion of ICT and e-learning.” Some of the notable necessity that NPE strategize are:

i.Essential e-learning is about improving the quality of learning using interactive computers, online communications and information systems in ways that other teaching methods cannot match. It is relevant to all subjects and to learners at every stage of learning or training. E-learning can even reach out and re-engaged people who are currently not involved in education because it is interactive, and can adapt to their needs.

ii. The importance of e-learning can raise standards and improving attainment by using self-paced, individualized and interactive materials to improve individual support to learners as they move up the system

iii. Increasing retention and improving outcomes by using personalized online guidance and support to allow learners to take greater responsibility for their own learning at the pace and level appropriate to them

iv. In broadening choice by making available new subject options and new learning

methods to meet individual needs, including where learners are geographically isolated.

v. Providing support for leaner at risk by enabling careers and public services to link

together in online communities of mutual support and expertise.

vi. Increasing access to learning for handicapped and disable learner through the usage of intelligent tools and aids for personalizing the internet, linking them to other learners and reducing isolation.

vii. Removing barriers to achievement by providing new and creative ways of motivating and engaging pupils and learners of all abilities, enabling and inspiring everyone to attain their educational potential.

viii. Reducing the level of illiteracy by offering private and individualized feedback on their literacy, numeracy and ICT skills.

Rationales For e-Learning

As the e-learning keeps growing, an increasing amount of learning activities can be expected through interactivity within the academia and the e-learning materials (Zheng & Ferris, 2008). Hence the essentials for e-leaning cannot be far from the following especially in consideration of the onset proposal for redesigning the minimum standard for Universities, Polytechnics, colleges of education and the rest.

The e-learning facilities when judiciously and fully implemented would:

(a). Reduce and/or eliminate the costs for instructor fees and materials to a certain level.

(b). Increased retention and enhanced hands-on application unlike traditional methods.

(c). Reduce time of learning and the time teachers and employee’s absence from duty.

(d). Help managed instruction and progress via portal.

(e). Make easy use of multimedia in practice and assessment according to learners’ abilities.

(f). Allow for automated monitor of user's progress with supervisor and teachers.

(g). Be highly interactive as it engages users and pushes them than pulling them to progress.

(h). Help past learners go with their speed in any course and avoid redundancy.

(i). Make slow learners go on their own pace by eliminating frustration with themselves, their fellow learners, and on the subject matter.

(j). Make knowledge cumulative as lessons are build consecutively and more flexible.

(k). Make learning takes place anytime, anywhere and greatly increases knowledge retention.

(l). Assist e-learners to create, have access, view, modify and print or send documents.

(m). Enhance evaluation as it become self-paced because e-learning is a networked phenomenon.

(n). Make easy delivery of content using standard Internet technology as it enhances surf ability.

(o). E-learning supersedes training and instruction as it is a tool that improve behavior performance.

The benefits of e-learning are numerous. It may as well including cost-effectiveness, enhanced responsiveness to change, consistency, timely content, flexible accessibility, and providing customer value (Olomo, 2001).

Importance And Benefits Of e-Learning

The role of e-learning in education is growing and will grow substantially in the next decade. Growth is also driven by the rising demand from learners, who increasingly use technology in everyday life and who want more flexible forms of study and learning programmes better tailored to their needs. The benefits of e-learning are well documented and accepted, not only within the Nigeria but world-wide. These benefits are not only for the Further education

For Learners:

i. E-learning can facilitate wider participation and fair access to further and higher education by creating the opportunity to start learning and to choose courses and support according to the learners needs.

ii. E-learning provides virtual learning world where learners can take part in active and creative learning with others through simulations, role-playing, remote control of real world tools and devices, online master classes, or collaboration with other education providers.

iii. E-learning can provide an individualized learning experience for all learners, including those who are disabled, exceptionally gifted, disadvantaged, have special curriculum or learning needs or who are remote or away from their usual place of learning.

iv. E-learning provides personalized learning support through information, advices, and guidance services. It can help learners find the course they need, with a seamless transition to the next stage of their learning, including online enrolment or application and an electronic portfolio of their learning to take with them. sector, but also for the learner and the employer

For the Further Education Sector

i. E-learning offers a wide range of tools to enable teachers and learners to be innovative, creative and resourceful in all learning activities. Teachers and learners can easily customise digital learning resources to suit pace and level, appropriate to any learning style and ability.

ii. E-learning creates on-line communities of practice. The Internet can bring learners, teachers, specialist communities, experts, practitioners and interest group together to share ideas and good practice.

iii. E-learning can support learning by offering differentiated learning, particularly for those who need support in literacy, numeracy and ICT.

iv. E-learning can help remove barriers to achievement, by providing new and creative ways of motivating and engaging pupils and learners of all abilities, enabling and inspiring everyone to attain their educational potential.

v. E-learning is important for education because it can improve the quality of the learning experience, and extend the reach of every lecturer and tutor.

The Adaptation Of e-Learning In Nigerian Institutions

In Nigeria one of the universities adopting e-learning is National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). One of the key advantages of employing e-learning for maintenance management training is related to the flexibility it offers and the ease of adaptation of how the training is delivered to individual learners (Yusuf, 1999). Much of the adaptation capacity of learning management solutions, draw inspiration from an understanding of the way human beings learn. Two key principles involved in such a process are:

1. Active involvement of learners in learning motivates them to learn. 2. As individual differences learners learn at different rates and ways; hence, customized techniques and materials lead to efficient learning. Also, there are three main learning theories which have been influencing e-learning (Keegan, 1993). They are:

i. Behaviourism

ii. Cognitive Science

iii. Constructivism

Behaviourism

The behaviourers treats learning as a set of changes to the learner as he/she reacts to environmental events. Memorization and imitation are critical in this learning process. The focus here is always on the teacher, or the computer providing the carefully arranged material but not the learner.

Cognitive Science

Learning is base on attention, motivation, perception and other internal processes. It focuses on screen design and on human / computer interaction, where the teacher usually has the role of the facilitator or partner.

Constructivism

This is a paradigm that postulates learners can construct their knowledge i.e. build up a knowledge model as they react with and interpret their environment. The most important thing here is that itis learner centered i.e. Student centered. Therefore, the aim is to provide stimuli and support for the users to construct their knowledge.

Challenges Of e-Learning In Nigeria University Education

Nigeria higher education system currently has 95 universities at which about 27 Federal universities, 34 state universities and 34 private own universities. Also, Nigeria has about 160 other tertiary institutions, Colleges of education, Polytechnics, and Monotechnics. Every year, about a million students apply to enroll into these universities but barely 10% of them are enrolled, JAMB (2009). Resnick M. (2002) and Folorunso et al (2002) found that mass unawareness, low computer literacy level and cost were identified as critical factors affecting the acceptability of e-learning by students and lecturers of Nigerian universities. Sharma R. and Ekundayo M.S. (2009) points out that 30 e-learning place high demand on learners who have to be more proactive and disciplined than in traditional face-to-face education. Resnick M. (2002) criticizes that even though ICT is applied in education, the approaches to teaching and learning remain largely unchanged. In order to entirely profit from new technologies, educational approaches and concepts on how technology can support them should be fundamentally rethought. Schulmeister R. (2006) states that experience proved that the benefits of e-learning could not be fully taken advantage of, expectations could not be met and that technology often was used to simply reinforce outmoded approaches to learning. Investigations indicate that the formidable challenge facing National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), is lack of financial support to build the required infrastructure and to produce learning materials for its over 9,000 students registered in the first year, Omofaye J.O. (2007). There is therefore non-availability of internet access in some tertiary institutions because of the recurrent cost of bandwidth. Inequality of access to technology is the challenge of digital divide existing among the student of NOUN; thus, some of them are unable to afford computers due to the relative cost to the average income of workers in the country, Ajayi et al and Arikpo et al. Further reviews on these challenges are:

(i) Internet connectivity: the cost of accessing the internet in Nigeria is still on the high side. Hence, some students find it a challenge to afford. Aduke A.F. (2008) suggested that the government should make Internet connectivity a priority for higher education to be able to leverage on the promises and opportunities ICTs present. (ii) Energy related problems: Irregular and frequent interrupted power supply in Nigeria is a perennial problem affecting almost every aspect of the economy, including education. Ajadi et al argued that it is been a major setback for technological advancement in the country. Most rural areas in Nigeria are not even connected to the national grid. The consequence of this is that students residing in such areas may find it difficult to use ICT effectively.

(ii) Limited expertise: Ajadi et al reported that there are few technical staff at NOUN to maintain the current system. Lack of, or inadequate trained personnel are a challenge to the use of ICT in most Nigerian higher institutions, Aduke A.F. (2008). The internet is a major driver of ICT in education. Bandwidth is a major issue in the deployment of e-learning. Bandwidth refers to the amount of information that can be sent or received at a point on a computer network, the greater the bandwidth, the greater the carrying capacity and speed of transmission. The higher the quality and quantity of audio, video, interaction and processing tasks, the more sophisticated the communications technology required. Bandwidth costs money, so there is a financial imperative to manage the amount of bandwidth used for elearning, particularly where it is used to support remote and distance users who may not have access to fast data connections. Furthermore, the content and services that can be accessed through internet are dictated by the bandwidth available. Nigerian contributed only approximately 2% among the Internet users worldwide, Zook M. (2004).

Problems Of e-Learning In Nigeria Universities

In spite of the bright prospect of e-learning in the country, it is so worrisome that there are some hurdles and impediment against the effective use of the educational technology in Nigeria. Some of these obstacles are:

a. High cost of hardware such as bigger bandwidth and other internal gadgets like smart boards

b. Less price competition and high import tariffs

c. Transmission cost is also high

d. Internet access is mainly through foreign ISPs due to unreliable local ISPs.

e. Dearth in skilled manpower for implementation and management

f. Inadequate training of staff in institutions especially related to educational technology

g. Poor condition of telecommunication infrastructure

h. Low literacy level in computer technology among personnel

i. Cost of acquiring and installation of the gadgets required for e-learning

j. Ceaseless interruption of power supply all over

k. Deficit in having well furnish/equipped e-learning centers

l. Cybercrime, Faithlessness/ trustworthiness. Adding to this, the National Open Universities Students Akure study chapter often faces the problem of learning new software to adapt for the emergence of a new e-learning course. Also, the technical constrain at first on the part of the learners and instructional aspects of the course are in parallel so that the instructional technology would fit within the curriculum. Learner cannot be thought of in a vacuum from the other. It is a very iterative process, based on trial and error with lots of sampling and sketches. Perhaps, the most frequently cited problem of e-learning was the amount of time required to develop and maintain an e-learning course, additional time is needed by the teacher to communicate with the students via the internet, mailing system or via education course forum that relate to the course. Students on the other hand need adequate time to search relevant information, gather data in a well orderly manner; balancing the time is a real problem facing the NOUN students. Furthermore, the problem relating to online group work, assignments, and effective evaluation are also bottlenecks towards e-learning. For example, when a student faced the challenge of writing equation that can be easily writing using book and biro; he / she face the of how to do so using the keyboard since almost the student make use of PC (Personal Computer) with limited hardware support device. Other cited problem are lack of technology proficiency (majorly with operating software), lack of awareness when the server crashes and unreliable technology to maintain student activities (Ukoha, 2007).

Prospects Of e-Learning

There is emerging evidence that e-learning can help to improve attainment and raise standards of education. The evaluation of the National Learning Network (NLN) in further education uses qualitative data to show that learners are becoming more sophisticated in their e-learning expectations and that ICT is increasing permeating college life. Below are the major vision, view, possibility and prospect of e-learning in Nigeria Universities:

1. Empower Learners:-

As stated by National Policy on Education (NPE, 2004) one of the primary aim of the philosophy of Nigeria Education is to produce a self reliant citizen that can be useful to themselves, their society and to the development of the country at large. E-learning engage learners with more active learning process, people in group or individual irrespective of their age could take responsibility for what and how they learn, achieving their personal goals as self-directed lifelong learners.

2. Creative and Innovative teaching and learning: -

With E-learning, teaching and learning of curriculum content could be more creative and innovative in preparation for the 21st century global knowledge society.

3. E-learning offer flexibility: -

A more responsive education system would adapt to the needs of all learners, wherever and however they need to learn. Wide range of curriculum content deployment to learner that will make the philosophical framework of Nigeria education to be ascertain on the level of equity.NPE recognize equal education for all citizen and with E-learning, the goal can be achieve.

4. E-learning achieve better value: -

Education leaders, evaluators and including classroom lecturers and teachers could develop innovative ways of deploying their resources, exploiting elearning alongside with other teaching methods to improve quality and economies of scale.

5. Generate a professional workforce and fulfilled citizens: -

E-learning would enable a community, group and a workforce for the knowledge society would have a high proportion of people capable of continually updating their knowledge and skills, e-learning will help in managing knowledge transfer and contribute to practitioner knowledge in all its forms. This will improve unity as stated by NPE. With the advent of e-learning to implement curriculum content in the Nigeria University will not only help to make the teaching and learning of the content brought by the teacher active but also to revolutionize education system (Ndam and Oti, 2010). E-learning will also tap the benefits of a more effective method of teaching and learning offers (Yaakub and Finch, 2010). Kajetanowtez and Wierzejewski (2010) pinpointed that e-learning has no rival when it comes to generation of intrinsic motivation and initiation of organized active learning in education. They equally see elearning as an efficient means of promoting self – study cum frequent testing in the form of formative evaluation which engender proper monitoring of educational progress and periodical achievement. Overall research report shows that e-learning provide positive effect on learners achievement. Garrison and Anderson (2003) affirmed that the use of e-learning helps learners to become motivated, eager to learn and creative. It helps learners to create a situation or atmosphere in which curiosity is aroused, imaginations stimulated, interests generated, viewpoints enlarged and attitudes changed thereby attaining the basis for education. According to World Bank (2002: 4) benefits of elearning to institutions and lecturers include the fact that it saves time and money, enhances image of the institution, promotes continuous professional development of staff, improve quality of teaching and makes learning more effective. Ololube (2006) expressed the view that availability of virtual learning can accomplish seven objectives when proper utilized. These include the fact that it promotes interest and vocabulary development in students and also provide experiences not easily obtained through other learning strategies and contribute to the efficiency, depth and variety of learning.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Motivational Theories

In making instruction interesting in learning, there is need to use methods/strategies and material/media which will make the learning of any subject, active, investigative and adventurous as much as possible. Such methods also must be ones that take into account, learners‟ differences and attitudes towards a subject. Examples could be the use of programmed learning texts, use of concrete materials and others instructional devices, which are manipulated. Also, of any subject exercises in form of various pencil and paper activities should also be used to enhance self-esteem of learners, which will in turn improve attitude of such students, it is recommended that varying activities (game activities), which have been designed to contain any subject problems ranging from easy to very difficult, should be used. At least each student no matter his ability level should be able to answer some questions correctly. This would go a long way to motivate such students towards further learning. When an activity is designed with its central feature being an admired situation, experience or individual, it would go a long way in motivating, pupils to learn any subject. For example, in teaching addition at the primary school level, you could 17 centre learning activities on foods like snacks. It could as well be centered on a pleasurable experience and so on. All these suggestions would help to motivate learners towards learning. However, one strategy, which has been observed to bring about motivation to learners to learn any subject, is the use of game based strategy (Aremu, 2008). The target of the study is premised on student, teacher, and curriculum. Therefore theories that have to do with the characteristics of these entities as they affect learning would be applicable. Since the learning of any subject matter depends on the way it is presented to the learner by his or her teacher, the way the learner interacts with the learning experiences presented to him and the environment within which the learning takes place, it is therefore expected that these entities will be affected by variables that have to do with them; these include, school location attitudes, and background knowledge in the subject that are considered in this study. The theories of Maslow (2009) and Gagne (2005) have therefore provided theoretical basis for the study. Maslow's motivational theory expresses that there are two groups of needs; these are deficiency needs and growth needs. When the deficiency needs are met, learners are likely to function at the higher levels (that is growth needs level). This means that when the deficiency needs are met, self directed learning or desire to know and understand would be engaged in more easily. The implication of thesis that teachers should encourage students to meet their growth needs by enhancing the attractiveness of learning situation. In the light of these, when the environment where the student is learning (in this study, class, and location of school) is made attractive, effective learning is likely to take place. Gagne's theoretical formulations are attempts to identify aspects of learning and to match with the intellectual demands of the individual. While development is subordinated 18 to learning, Gagne's paradigm insists on identifying valid ordered sequences of instruction (pre-requisites) that can facilitate the learning of intellectual skills. Gagne's theory offers an opportunity for the any subject teacher to diagnose students' limitations and strengths more effectively, thus permitting more adequate individualization and personalization of instruction. Gagne's learning hierarchy also offers teachers the opportunities of developing and conceptualizing agreed-upon subject goals and objectives in reality oriented and learner - centre way. It is on this premise that Gagne anchors his belief that children learn an ordered additive capability. That is, the simpler and more specific capabilities is learned before the next more complex and general capability. Gagne therefore considered previous experience to have a major role in determining an individual's performance.

Social learning theory

A well-known social learning theory has been developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace attention, memory and motivation. His theory of learning suggests that people learn within a social context, and that learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward “reciprocal determininsm” that holds the view that a person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each others. He argues that children learn from observing others as well as from “model” behaviour, which are processes involving attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on learning is well documented.

Socio-constructivism

In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further changed by the rise of the perspective of “situated cognition and learning” that emphasized the significant role of context, particularly social interaction. Criticism against the information-processing constructivist approach to cognition and learning became stronger as the pioneer work of Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic research by scholars like Rogoff and Lave came to the fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism was that the information-processing constructivism saw cognition and learning as processes occurring within the mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the new view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a situation; knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of the activity, context and culture in which it is formed and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor for learning as “participation” and “social negotiation”.