THE EFFECTS OF BEHAVIOUR DISORDER ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in two sub-headings:

• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Chapter Summary

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

The National Association of Special Education Teachers (2008) outlined the criteria required for a student to meet the IDEA criteria as EBD. Emotional disturbance is 1 of 12 disability categories specified under IDEA. It is defined as follows: 'the term means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance: (A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors, (B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers, (C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances, (D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, (E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems, (ii) The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance'. According to the National Association of Special Education (NASE) (2008) mood disorders, anxiety disorders, ADHD, conduct disorders, or other psychiatric disorders are often exhibited by children with EBD. In addition, NASE identified that co-morbidity of emotional and behavioral disorders is common. Children with EBD are at-risk of substance abuse and more frequently have negative contacts with the juvenile justice system. NASE purports that children with EBD are often likely to come from economically disadvantaged homes, be male, African American, live in single or foster parent homes, or reside in an alternative living arrangement situation. Farmer and Hollowell (1994) discussed a broad range of social difficulties that students with EBD experience. Lane, Carter, Pierson, and Glaeser (2006) found that academic, social, and behavioral deficits experienced by children with EBD often lead to difficulties in adulthood. Academically students with EBD are often deficient in reading comprehension (Lane et al., 2006). Farmer and Hollowell (1994) discussed current research presenting that students with EBD have a broad range of interpersonal deficits that often lead to peer rejection, social isolation, disruption, and aggression that resulted in social difficulties and isolation.

Symptoms of Emotional Disorders among Students

Dewan Siswa (2012) reported that according to the National Health and Morbidity Survey found that 14.4% of adolescents aged 16 to 19 had mental health problems compared to adults who recorded 11.2% of cases. The findings also found that 11% of adolescents aged 16 to 24 have ever thought of committing suicide. The percentage is relatively high, and this needs to be addressed urgently so that the number of cases does not continue to rise to hold-up more serious circumstances. According to the Ministry of Health Malaysia (2004), depression symptoms can be more like losing interest in daily activities, loss of focus, problems or sleep disorders, appetite changes, decreased or increased weight loss, fatigue, excessive guilt, loss of self esteem, Hopeless and worst is always think about death. While Ismail and Subki (2013) stated that students with mild emotional disturbances usually do not look at their external features and are still able to control themselves. Students' anxiety can be seen based on facial expressions, behavior or thinking style inclinations. However, anxiety-related individuals are still able to survive, but what distinguishes them is the suffering that causes them to be unable to survive happily, cheerfully, confidently, energetically and happily (Alfian et al., 2006). Unconscious, depression is one of the most infectious mental illnesses among the people and the common practice of these illnesses is that they are experiencing depression (Hatta, 2001). This is because they consider it to be their own weakness as a result of weak feelings in life mines (Rosenthal and Okie, 2005; Manthorpe et al, 2005; Siew, 2005; Students Against Depression, 2005; Mohd Hussain and Ahmad Hatim, 2006). As a result, they did not get the proper treatment and eventually resulted in the fall thet turn into a more serious depression situation (Hatta, 2001; Reeves, 2005; Bradvick and Berglund, 2005; Hussain and Hatim, 2006). The fact that this depression symptoms faced by individuals becoming increasingly difficult to identify by people out there and also the expert (Heather, 2007; Mohamed Hatta, 2001; FitzGibbon, 2003; Franck and Raedt, 2007). Tin (2000) describes emotionally distressed students emulating unstable emotional life, unable to react accurately and hard to control self-esteem. According to Tin (2000), some behaviors that show mild emotional disturbances such as shy, often solitary, irritated, angry, do not want to give up, do not like peers, often fight, attack and beat friends or teachers. Students who experience emotional disturbances will also point to attitudes such as wild, violent, rebellious, impatient, often raging and tendering to show behavior that violates normal situations. From the perspective of da'wah, teens who experience emotional stress are exposed to mental problems if these problems are not addressed earlier (Fariza, 2005). The behavioral problems shown by the students are mostly caused by emotion (Lailawati, 2006). Furthermore, individuals with high emotions are said to be inclined in exhibit low social behavior (Eisenberg & Febes, in Lailawati, 2006). When a high level of stress happens in the individual, it will negatively affect a person's learning process rather than a positive effect (Sapora, 2001). In addition, individuals can make mistakes during vanish their stress and anxieties and emotions by acting out beyond the bounds such as fighting, taking drugs, and engaging with misconduct (Muhammad Alfian et al., 2006). Continued emotional disorders will also lead to more severe consequences such as suicide and so forth (Rosenthal and Okie, 2005; Manthorpe et al., 2005; Reeves, 2005; Bradvick and Berglund, 2005). Suicide is the worst impact on people with emotional disorders syndrome. Students who are still too fragile and crude in the face of difficulty in life require guidance to avoid unwanted things (Students against Depression, 2005; Manthorpe et al., 2005). Students who experience emotional disturbances from various factors also influence academic perceptions (Chan and Rodziah, 2012). This is because students are not able to handle the disruption and cause them to ignore the lesson. Western studies such as Allchin (1975), Ghuman and Sarles (1998), Weiner (1970) and Adelson (1980) demonstrate that students with emotional disturbances will have an impact on academic achievement. See and Lee (2005) suggest that teachers need to address conflicts faced by the students so that these things do not cause other students to fall into the unwanted problem, because the relative students are easily affected especially on the negative. Depression among adolescents is usually protected by behaviors such as hyperactivity, disability in learning, potentially school (Kauffman, 2001), Fatigue, attention issues, health problems and other body problems (Ingersoll, 1989; Dacey & Kenney, 1997). Teachers' offset attitude towards students who violate disciplinary rules will influence other students to commit violation of school rules (Haliza and Joy, 2009). Peer influences towards the negative thing that not controlled can cause to disciplinary problems among students. This situation enables students with disciplinary problems to form the dynamics of groups with the same values and tendencies (Haliza and Joy, 2009). This depression syndrome is not something that can be underestimated because the negative effects of these depression are very dangerous and can destroy themselves (Robbins and Tanck, 1984; Mohamed Hatta, 2001; Mohd Hussain and Ahmad Hatim, 2006; Abdul Latiff, 2007; American Psychological Association, 2007; Bilsker et al., 2007).

Manifestation of EBD

Emotional and behavioral disorders are manifested in the form of behavioral excesses or behavioral deficits. Behavioral excesses or externalizing behaviors are also referred to as undercontrolled behavior problems and are characterized by multiple instances of defiant, aggressive, disruptive, and noncompliant responses. Almost three-quarters of children with externalizing disorders pass through a predictable progression from less to more severe forms of social maladjustment. These behaviors seem to be the focus of teachers, who view them as intolerable as a result of the challenging of their authority, the interference of instruction, disruption of classroom routines, and adverse affect on classmates (Masi & Favilla, 2000). Behavioral deficits of EBD are referred to as internalizing behavior disorders or overcontrolled behaviors. These behaviors are characterized by inner-directed and covert actions. A child with an internalizing behavior disorder may be withdrawn, shy, depressed, and/or have dysthymia and other emotional or personality disorders. Just as externalizing disorders, these disorders are predictive of social adjustment difficulties and psychopathology (Masi & Favilla, 2000). Internalizing behaviors often occur concomitant to impaired cognitive functioning, a lack of social competence and acceptance, language deficits, limited problem-solving strategies, and eventually result in nonattendance at school (Quinn & McDougal, 1998). Due to the nature of internalizing behaviors, they do not often come to the attention of teachers or other authorities. In cases where the problems are identified, they are overlooked because they are not seen as difficulties. This mistake of nonintervention must be avoided. If internalizing behaviors are not treated, the consequences_ carry the same seriousness as untreated externalizing behavior disorders (Lambros & Ward, 1998).

Causes Of Emotional Behaviour Disorder

Research does not indicate a single cause of EBD but a number of theories and conceptual models have been established in an attempt to explain the problems of EBD children. These possible causes can be categorized as either biological or environmental. The biological category includes brain disorders, genetics, and temperament. Individuals suffering from brain disorders generally have emotional or behavioral problems, although not many children with EBD are actually suffering from a brain disorder or injury (Heward, 2003). Some forms of EBD have links to genetics, with the greatest amOlmt of research and support for a genetic link factor between schizophrenia and EBD. A study conducted by Gottesman (1991) as cited by Heward (2003) indicates that the closer the familial relation to an individual suffering from schizophrenia, the greater the probability of displaying characteristics of EBD that cannot be explained solely by environmental factors. A person's temperament is the way in which he generally responds to situations and can be classified as either easygoing or difficult. Children who display an easygoing temperament may be less likely to have behavior problems in adolescence and beyond (Caspi, Henry, McGee, Moffitt, & Silva, 1995). However, not all research supports the theory that temperament is innate. Environmental factors believed to influence the likelihood of developing EBD include "(1) an adverse early rearing environment, (2) an aggressive pattern of behavior displayed when entering school, and (3) social rejection by peers" (Heward, 2003, p. 294). The horne, the community, and the school are the three settings in which the undesirable events occur. Much research has indicated that the parent-child relationship is critical in detennining the way that a child learns to behave. Children with EBD most often corne from homes in which parents are harsh and inconsistent disciplinarians, manage behavior with excessive punishment, do not spend much prosocial time with their children, do not monitor children's whereabouts or activities, and do not show much affection (McEvoy & Welker, 2000). The community has a further negative effect on EBD children due to the reinforcement of antisocial behavior through association with peers. The activities of peers that contribute to antisocial behavior include gang relations, drug/alcohol abuse, and deviant sexual behavior (Biglan, 1995). Because of the amount of time that children spend in the classroom school is also an influential factor to EBD children. Specific schooling practices that are suspected of contributing to EBD include "ineffective instruction, unclear rules and expectations for appropriate behavior, inconsistent and punitive discipline practices, infrequent teacher praise and approval for academic and social behavior, and failure to individualize instruction to accommodate diverse learners" (Heward, 2003, p. 296). Teachers, peers, and the lack of support and discipline are all possible environmental causes.

Race and Gender

Although EBD affects both male and females of all races, those more often labeled and served as EBD are either male and/or African American. Hendrickson, Smith, and Frank (1998) found that there are a significantly greater number of males than females in restrictive programs for students with severe behavioral disorders. Sutherland, Wehby, and Yoder (2002) fOlmd only thirty-three female students as opposed to 183 male students in 20 participating self-contained classrooms. African-Americans made up the majority of students in both studies.

Factors Affecting Emotional Disorders among Students

There are various factors that contribute to a person suffering from a disease of depression. One of them is genetic or hereditary. Individuals with family members who have had a depressive disease, have a higher risk of developing this disease than others. Additionally, individuals with anxiety or not cheerful personality are more likely to get a depressive illness. In addition, those who have experienced life-threatening events in childhood are also at risk, for example, those with psychological trauma, or drug abuse including smokers (Amer Siddiq, 2014). Another factors that can cause depression is chemical imbalances or hormones in the brain. The main hormones that are often associated with depression are serotonin. Among other hormones involved are norepinephrine and dopamine. These materials are needed for the human brain to function normally in regulating our feelings. Therefore, failure in production or improvement in the destruction of these substances will lead to a chemical imbalance and thereby lead to a person suffering from a depressive illness (Amer Siddiq, 2014). In addition, parents become the domain factors that cause emotional disorders among students. Family is the most memorable behavior and personality of children. According to Ismail and Subki (2013), parents or families are the biggest influence in shaping the behavior of children since birth. Parent sensitivity makes children lose guidance and mistakenly in life. The study proved that the increase to 17.9% after sex was a family factor and there was a significant relationship between family and emotional intelligence. This situation proves that family institution is very important in influencing students' emotion (Azizi, Nordin, & Juriah, 2010). Negative relationships between parents and children can cause conflict and pressure them. According to Adnan al-Sharif (1987) in Fariza (2005), stress is not only affected by mental and emotional disturbances but also stress can happens when people feel inadequate mental or souls who are in anxiety, complacency, fear and anxiety. In detailing the factors that cause emotional stress, psychologist explains that the development of teenagers in Malaysia experiences emotional stress which is due to the physiological and psychological changes that occur to them (Rohaty Majzub, 1992). According to Kasmini Kassim, pediatrician, in Malaysia, emotional disorders that often occur in children and adolescents are largely due to the stress experienced by them (in Fariza, 2005). The time constraints of busy parents who work and have no children's space are among the main causes for emotional disturbances faced by students. Parents need to be more aware of their responsibilities towards children. Many parents assume that when they are able to provide a comfortable place to stay, have a drink and equipment, then the responsibility is fulfilled. This even becomes a mistake spread to parents because, the need for neglected love and the children lost their spoils, share stories, and so on. The findings of Shaffer et al. Al., (2011) found that contextual risk when a family of unsupportive parenting affects the negative emotions of children. Therefore, as a result of these failures, children's emotions will be disturbed and they will be looking for space to get emotional when they are at school. Hence, the misconduct is done by the student. Happiness in the family makes student emotion stable and if the family situation has a conflict, then student emotion will be interrupted indirectly (Fariza, 2005). Students who experience emotional disturbances, fail to see the family as an environment or atmosphere that gives them happiness and happiness (Azizi and Badrulzaman, 2010). The development of personality and negative behavior is the result of failure in family institution (Sigurdsson, 1996; Sokol-Katz, 1997). Kasmini Kassim (1998) notes that emotional disturbances faced by children may occur due to conflict situations and problems faced by adults. There are five behaviors of parents or guardians who are considered to be abusive children's emotions, namely denial, isolation, scare, indifference, and bribery (Garbarino, Gatmann and Sealey et al., 1986). According to Sigmund Freud's Theory of Socio-Emotional Development, boys will experience complex Oedipus conditions that are more attractive to their mothers. While girls will experience complex Elektra, attracted to her father (Zakaria et al., 2012). Family or parents are considered as socializations affecting childhood and should be the models of emotional expressions to children. Children who face problems in expressing emotions and risky behaviors to show high levels of behavior (Norly, 2010).

The Challenge of Educating Emotional/Behavioral Disordered Children

Children with EBD exhibit behaviors that make the process of education quite difficult. The majority of these children enter schools devoid of the skills, interpersonal behavior, and attitudes necessary to satisfactorily participate in the classroom process (Sutherland, 2001). Social skill deficits include peer relationship problems, aggression, and oppositionality (Sutherland et aI., 2002). Other social problems, which are often associated with language problems, include withdrawal, depression, and antisocial behavior (Hendrickson et aI., 1998). The combination of social and academic difficulty (noted earlier) results in classroom problems such as disruptive and off-task behavior, which affect not only the EBD student, but other students and the teacher as well (Sutherland et aI., 2002; Gunter et aI., 2002; Kern, Delaney, Clarke, Dunlap & Childs, 2001).

Rationale

Emotional and behavioral disorder is a disorder that can severely affect the daily processes of a child and has serious long-term effects. Each teacher in the school system should have enough knowledge of the disorder and how to work with the disorder to give children who suffer from EBD the same chance for success that other students have. Students with EBD can be taught effectively, even in the general education setting. Research is beginning to provide possible methods of prevention and intervention for these children. With the proper application of these methods, children with EBD have a greater possibility of successfully completing high school and participating in a successful life beyond high school (Lane, Gresham, & O'Shaughnessy, 2002; Sutherland, 2001). It is the responsibility of educators to make sure they are prepared to deal with the implications of EBD for the processes of the classroom.

Education Levels of EBD Students

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders strongly affect the academic performance of children who suffer from the disorders. Gunter, Countinho, and Cade (2002) suggest that: Children with EBD are often regarded as more difficult to teach than students with other kinds of problems and are more likely to be (a) mis- or underidentified, (b) recommended for exclusion from general education settings and (c) found to attain marginal or unsatisfactory educational outcomes.

Students with EBD have the lowest grade-point averages of students in all disability categories. Almost one-half of students characterized as EBD have GP A's below 1.75 and have failed at least one course in the most recent school year. A majority of EBD students fail their yearly grade-level competency examinations. Perhaps contributing to the low achievement level is the rate of absenteeism, which is higher than students of any other disability, at an average of 18 days (yearly). Students with EBD also have lower rates of graduation than students in any other disability category. The dropout rate is almost double that of general education students (Quinn & McDougal, 1998; Sutherland, 2001).

Life Beyond School

The problems of students with EBD continue in life beyond school and graduation. Not many of the EBD students who graduate from high school attend any form of postsecondary education. Rates of unemployment for EBD graduates range from 25% to 52%. A significant number of students with EBD have been arrested at least once within two years of graduation (Sutherland, 2001).

Academic Achievement of Students with EBD

Prevalence rates for students with EBD who have comorbid academic and behavioral challenges vary, ranging from 25% to 97% (Reid et al. 2004). The poor academic functioning of students with EBD is not surprising given that academic underachievement is part of the identifying criteria in the federal definition for emotional disturbance (IDEIA 2004; Mooney et al. 2003). Although the comorbid existence of EBD and academic deficits has been documented over time (Nelson et al. 2004), in recent years, researchers have attempted to elucidate the specific characteristics of the academic performance of students with EBD. Multiple studies suggest that students with EBD perform 1– 2 years below grade level, with significant differences in achievement as compared to students without disabilities (Kauffman 2001; Reid et al. 2004; Trout et al. 2003). In a meta-analysis of the academic status of students with EBD, Reid and colleagues reported a general academic functioning level at the 25th percentile with an overall effective size of −.69, indicating moderate to large differences in achievement as compared to students without disabilities. In terms of specific areas of academic functioning, students with EBD exhibit broad deficits including underachievement in math, reading, reading comprehension, vocabulary, and written language (Anderson et al. 2001; Coutinho 1986; Greenbaum et al. 1996; Lane et al. 2006; Nelson et al. 2003; Nelson et al. 2004; Trout et al. 2003). Further, the limited information available suggests that boys and girls with EBD have comparable academic achievement deficits (Nelson et al.). Thus, relative to their typical peers, boy and girls with EBD have broad academic deficits. Researchers also have examined how students with EBD progress over time. Unfortunately, the literature consistently indicates that students with comorbid EBD and academic deficits do not improve over time (Anderson et al. 2001; Nelson et al. 2004). However, details on what actually occurs in the academic development of these students are inconsistent. Some studies have indicated that academic deficits remain stable over time (Anderson et al. 2001; Mattison et al. 2002; Reid et al. 2004). For example, in a meta-analysis of the academic performance of students with EBD, Reid and colleagues reported no significant differences between children and adolescents. However, there is evidence indicating that, for some students, academic deficits become worse as they age. For example, in a cross sectional study of 155 students with EBD in grades K-12, Nelson and colleagues reported that while reading and written language levels remained stable (i.e., no significant differences between younger and older students), there were significant differences between children and adolescents in mathematics. This outcome suggests that mathematic deficits may increase as students with EBD get older. In contrast, an earlier study conducted by Coutinho (1986) also suggested declining academic deficits across the content areas as students increased in age. However, these findings should be interpreted very cautiously given Coutinho drew this conclusion based on increases in grade-level equivalent differences across time. Standard scores, which allow for such comparisons over time, were not analyzed. Regardless as to whether academic performance remains stable or declines over time, this lack of improvement is concerning. Discrepancies in outcomes may be related to several issues. First, as illustrated above, the type of scores analyzed may influence outcomes. Second, the age range in the samples may vary and, consequently, influence outcomes. For example, the mean ages of the students in studies reviewed by Reid et al. (2004) appeared to be from 5.90 to 14.40 years, and the students in the study by Nelson et al. (2004) appeared to be older with mean ages ranging from 6.28 to 18.60. However this explanation should be considered with caution as only partial details regarding students’ ages were provided by Reid et al. (2004) (i.e., means were reported in the summary tables, but age ranges were not reported). A third possible explanation could be settings in which studies were conducted. For example in the meta-analysis conducted by Reid and colleagues, students were educated in a variety of settings, ranging from resource programs to separate day schools to clinical outpatient settings. It is possible that progress in academic achievement may vary as a function of setting (Lane et al. 2005a).

Relationship Between Behaviors Disorder and Academic Achievement

In recent years, researchers have examined the relation between various subtypes of EBD and academic performance. For example, Mattison et al. (1998) reported a relation between conduct and oppositional problems (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-III, American Psychological Association [APA], 1994) and academic achievement in a convenience sample of elementary and secondary age students with EBD. More specifically, the presence of a DSM-III Conduct or Oppositional Defiant Disorder, increasing enrollment age, a verbal intelligence quotient (IQ) significantly lower than performance IQ, and the absence of any DSM-III anxiety or depressive disorders were significant predictors of unsuccessful academic outcomes. Similarly, Abikoff et al. (2002) found that the co-occurrence of Disruptive Behavior Disorders and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder was more indicative of academic achievement deficits relative to other psychiatric disorders present in isolation or combination. Finally, Nelson et al. (2004) conducted a cross sectional study of academic achievement of 155 K-12 students with EBD receiving special education services to examine how particular types of problem behaviors (internalizing and externalizing) related to academic performance. Findings revealed that externalizing, and not internalizing, behaviors were associated with academic performance in reading, mathematics, and writing. These results also were consistent with previous studies that indicated a relation between academic underachievement and problems of conduct and attention (Lane et al. 2001; Mattison et al. 1998).

School Role of Handling Student Emotional Pressure

Previous studies clearly demonstrate that the emotional stress faced by students comes from home. However, the school is the longest place for students to spend around 8 hours a day. This shows that teachers play an important role in helping students who have emotional disorders. This statement is supported by the study of Chan and Rodziah (2012) which states that students spend a lot of time in school and teachers also can catalyze student emotional intelligence. Furthermore, curriculum development also outlines that there are several subjects such as Islamic Education and Moral Education able to overcome the emotional development of students. Despite the fact that there are still no specific subjects for emotional and social learning in the curriculum. Among the key elements that enable teachers to help students to deal with emotional stress problems is personal touch. Teachers need to communicate professionally with problematic students to encourage them to share experiences, care, understand students personally and try to solve the problems they face. This method will open up opportunities for teachers to identify students' personality more closely in the classroom which can help students with emotional stress (Mohd Sahandri et. al., 2011). The second element has been outlined by Mohd Sahandri et.al. (2011), which is showing compassion. The attitude of the teacher's concern for stress-stricken students encourage the students to share the problems faced. Students who face stress feel excited when the teacher tries to understand them because the disenchant home makes them look for other alternatives to get attention and affection from teachers especially from female teachers. However, Abdul Ghani and Abd. Rahman (2009) argues that teachers should manage them through humanitarian aspects. This is because empowering emotional intelligence to shape behavior and manage student behavior through critical thinking is one of the elements in humanitarian aspects. Justice, encouragement, independence, confidence and trust are important values in humanity. These aspects will help teachers to manage students' behaviors into more responsible people and to create the ideal students. In addition, the group counseling approach can also be used to handle emotional problems among students. Studies have shown that group counseling leads to a positive attitude change and creating a sense of openness. This is because during the counseling session the student will express a negative feeling and will create the trust and freedom of fellow group members (Roslee et al., 2004). Cluster counseling approaches can be offered to students who need emotional help more effectively and with the intention that it is planned in detail. As group counseling sessions are conducted, teachers will use various skills such as building relationships, structuring, responding, empathizing and giving minimal encouragement that will help launch the group counseling process (May and Housley, 1996).

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Action-readiness theory of emotions

The longest standing cognitive theory of emotions that remains under active development is Frijda’s action readiness account[9–11]. Like Ortony, Clore, and Collins’s componential theory[12,13], to which it is comparable, Frijda’s theory holds that emotions are built from elements that are not themselves emotions. For the componential theory, these are stimulus–response pairs; for Frijda they are ‘ur-emotions’, states of readiness for certain kinds of action[11], each of which gives priority to a particular goal. Frijda postulates that appraisal yields pleasantness or unpleasantness, with its tendency to approach or to avoid. Such simple appraisals can be automatic and unconscious, as Clore and his colleagues have shown in experiments on priming and on how emotions can be informative[14]. States of readiness have motivational properties. They impart an urgency to establish, maintain, or modify the individual’s relationship with the event or person that caused the emotion by an action intended to achieve the motivational state’s aim. Different states of action readiness have different aims, generated by appraisal of which aspects of the event that elicited an emotion should be enhanced or diminished. In joy, for instance, an aim is to enhance engagement in the current situation. In fear the aim is to diminish danger.

Frijda has ranged widely in his analyses, from what it is to fall in love, to the nature of vengeance, to emotions in movies. In his account emotion is not a state but a process, and cognitions can regulate each of its phases[9,15]. An emotion can prepare for many kinds of action, individual and social. The readiness is all. The theory of action readiness is based on evidence that different emotions relate both to different appraisals and to different states of readiness for kinds of action[2,11]. It has led to computational models[16], analyses of Chinese poetics [17], and cross-cultural studies [18].

Core-affect theory of emotions

Russell [19] has proposed that underlying any emotion is core affect, a state with two dimensions: level of arousal and pleasure versus displeasure. This theory has been augmented by Barrett and other colleagues [20,21]. Core affect results from internal or external causes, but people have no introspective access to what causes it. It is a continuous 2D assessment of one’s current state. It can be experienced as free floating, but it can also be attributed to an object. Like Schachter and Singer’s theory [22], the core-affect theory postulates two stages in generating an emotion. The first is of arousal (with an added pleasure–displeasure dimension) and the second is of social construction. Like appraisal, social construction is of long standing in cognitive approaches to emotions.Following this approach, core affect prompts experience of an emotional episode constructed from social customs and cultural ideas, as a prototype of anger, fear, or suchlike. An emotion prototype comprises an event,the perception ofits core-affective quality, attribution of the emotion to an object, continuing appraisal of the object, and action directed toward the object. The intuition behind the theory of core affect is that although people talk of emotions such as anger and fear, such states are not distinct and they are not evolutionary universals. As prototypes, they overlap. Evidence includes facial expressions being less categorical than Ekman has proposed in his arguments for emotions as universals [6,23,24] and the finding that variations of emotions within a category such as fear are as wide as those across a category boundary, say between fear and anger [25]. The theory has been applied to the nature of emotional feelings [21] and neural bases of emotion [26,27].

Communicative theory of emotions

This theory postulates that emotions are communications within the brain and among individuals [28,29]. It postulates that distinct basic emotions evolved as adaptations in social mammals [30]. Rapid appraisals of situations in relation to current goals fall into a small number of generic events, such as trains of action going well, losses, frustrations, and dangers. Appraisals are cognitive, although not necessarily conscious. They are signals that set body and mind into modes that have been shaped by evolution and individual experience to prompt a person toward certain kinds of action appropriate to the generic event and to impart urgency to these actions. Appraisals can occur anywhere in a hierarchy of brain processes. Emotional signals and the propositional contents of their appraisals are separate communications in the brain (Figure 1). Emotional signals are basic in the sense of being evolutionary adaptations, although this proposal has been disputed [13,26]. Because basic emotions

Figure 1.Cognitive modules in the brain according to the communicative theory of emotions. (A) How an emotional signal spreads diffusely from one module (2.3) to turn on some modules (2.2 and 3.4) and turn off others (3.5 and 3.6). The resulting state is a distinctive mode, tuned to respond to a recurring kind of event in the environment. In the mode of the basic emotion of fear, for instance, vigilance for danger in the environment is turned on and continuance of a current plan is turned off. (B) How, in addition, propositional signals pass along specific pathways and can indicate the cause and object of the emotion. Usually these two kinds of signal combine so that a diffuse emotional signal initiates an emotion and propositional messages enable the experiencer to recognize its cause and object.

are without propositional content, their repercussions in consciousness are experiences without awareness of their causes. However, they are usually accompanied by an awareness of propositional contents about their causes and the objects to which they are directed. Some basic emotions – happiness, sadness, anger, and fear – can occur without an object, but others necessarily have objects; these include love and hatred as well as disgust, which can be directed at substances or people [31]. Other emotions are complex. These derive from basic emotions, but they arise from appraisals that necessarily have propositional content, usually recognized consciously, that concerns one’s self (i.e., the mental model one has of one’s self), which embodies one’s ideals. They include jealousy, in which fear, anger, or hatred arise from an appraisal that a third person threatens a relationship, and embarrassment, in which fear of ridicule arises from an appraisal of its possibility. With complex emotions, propositional contents act as triggers and they therefore vary, with aspects being socially constructed from culture and individual development. Emotions are also communications to others, by gestures, postures, facial expressions, and verbalizations. Emotions often produce empathy in others and they can create and maintain relationships such as happy cooperation or angry conflict. Evidence for this theory includes reports from people who keep emotion diaries. These reports show that people tend to experience emotions when events affect their goals or plans, that happiness, sadness, anger, and fear can occur without propositional content, and that such free-floating emotions comprise 6% of reported episodes[32]. The communicative theory has been applied to the semantics of emotion terms [33], to effects of emotion on reasoning (Box 1), to the emotional significance of fiction (Box 2), to music (Box 3), to film [34], and to psychological illnesses.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

In this review the researcher has sampled the opinions and views of several authors and scholars study the concept of emotional and behavioral disorders, symptoms of emotional disorders among students, manifestation of EBD, causes of emotional behaviour disorder, factors affecting emotional disorders among students, the challenge of educating emotional/behavioral disordered children, and academic achievement of students with EBD etc. The works of scholars have been reviewed also. The chapter has made clear the relevant literature.