THE EFFECTS OF EARLY MARRIAGE PRACTICE ON EDUCATION FOR GIRLS IN NIGERIA

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

GIRL CHILD EDUCATION

Education seems to be a pre-requisite for a sustainable development which could lead a country to achieve maximum profitability within and outside the country (Tola and Asishati (2012). Adedeji (2019) reasoned that lack of education leads to so many unfortunate events in one's life. Education as a process welcomes changes in different aspects of life and promotes sustainability of society (Huges, Kroechler, and Zanden, 2019). Education is an aspect of human endeavor that leads to socialization Onyekwelu, (2017), he also opined that education can also be seen as a pointer that directs, detects, leads someone in right directions, and equally opens an avenue for problem solving. Moreover, it makes one to acquire and develop high sense of esteem, being able to know his/her personality capacity. Education is the main source of our democratic way of life, economic, political, social and otherwise. It is the utmost way of achievement in our society enveloping human existence, and at the same time, the most economic investment society can be quilt. (Kennedy, 2012) Marriage is found in all cultures as a process by which individual select their partners. It is an old institution which regulates the term upon which male and female reproduce according to well defined and acceptable social norms.

The girl-child, and indeed women all over the world especially in Nigeria have had their destiny sealed from birth by tradition and culture on account of their biological sex. They have been called the weaker sex in order to justify societal discrimination and oppression against them. Their natural rights of place in the scheme of things as human beings are not respected. They are shortchanged, victimized, and stereotyped. The girl-child has become a victim of female trafficking across international borders, being denied education, and consigned to early marriage. They can be seen but not to be heard in both private and the public spaces of decision making. The girl-child by the natural status ascribed to her by male defined norms societal conduct and behaviour remains a property to be owned and commoditized. It is only education that can salvage women from this condition.

The situation in Nigeria is clear, a girl will be withdrawn from school if a good marriage prospects arises. (DHS) data also show a clear link in some other countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, Kazakhstan and Indonesia. Although attitudes towards the education of girls have begun to change even in traditional societies, many parents still believe that investment in a girl's education is wasted when she is simply going to be married and work in another household. The costs of the investment in education reinforce the imp the impetus towards the girl-child withdrawal from school. In rural areas, secondary education often means that a girl must leave to live in a school dormitory, parent fear that this may expose her to risks including pre-marital sex and pregnancy. In Northern Nigeria, for example, girls are often kept out of school for this very reason even where girls can live at home while attending schools, fears about their possible sexual activity about sexual harassment or about insecurity on the journey to and from school, discourage their attendance. The removal from school of a young girl to marry early limits her opportunities to develop her intellect. She also loses out on socializing, making friends outside her family circle, and many other useful skills. This reduces her chances of developing her own independent identity. The girl grows up with no sense of the right to assert to her own point of view and little experience in articulating one. Lack of self-esteem or of a sense of ownership of he own body expose a girl-child to unwanted pregnancy and make her vulnerable to HIV infection. Lack of schooling also means that the girl child who must work to earn a living has no qualifications or skills, which leads her to a commercialized version of work as cleaners, cooks, child minding and may also lead her to commercial sex trade.

MARRIAGE

Marriage is one of the oldest socially recognized institution and essential for the procreation of children and satisfaction of our sexual urges. Throughout the world, marriage is been regarded as a moment of celebration and milestone in adult life. Sadly, the practice of early marriage gives no such cause for celebration. All too often, the imposition of a marriage partner upon a girl-child means that a girl-child-hood is cut short and her fundamental rights are compromised (UNICEF, 2001 and Lefevre, Quiroya and Murphy, 2004). Young girls are robbed of their youth and require taking on roles for which they are not psychologically or physically prepared. Many have no choice about the timing of marriage while others are too young to make an informed decision. Premature marriage deprives them of the opportunity for personal development as well as their rights to full reproductive health and wellbeing, education and participation in civic life.

Marriage is a term of social relationship of husband and wife is of plural mates. Also it is for the ceremony of uniting marital partners. Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two to more people establish a family (Dixon, 2018). It involves not only the right to bear and rear children, but also other firms of obligation. Methods of Marriage There are two acceptable methods of marriage according to Rury (2017). Exogamy method of marriage seems to be when a person marries outside one's group, religion, race, class and caste of which it is mostly practice in the modern times. Endogamy is when a person marries inside one's group, religion, race, class and caste which is mostly practice in rural areas.

Types of Marriage

There are many types of marriage but to mention but few Monogamy, polygamy, polygamy, polyandry, Non-fraternal, group -marriage, experimental marriage, intercaste marriage, Anuloma, pratiloma, Hyper - gamy and hypogamy so rerate marriage, levirate and marriage by elopement. But within our country Nigeria, monogamy and polygamy type of marriage are most practices which involve a person marry one wife and two wives respectively. Marriage is an institution ordained by God for companionship and procreation. The union is expected to be by the consent of two adults who are mature enough to take their responsibility, (Rotimi, 2017). According Ezeagu (2013), opined that marriage is based on growth and development as well as changes that takes place at different stages of development to full maturity, socially, educationally and otherwise.

EARLY MARRIAGE

Nigeria a country blessed with rich human and natural resources is the most populated country in the sub-Saharan region with an estimated population of about 162.5 million. Of this, about 49% of the population are females, accounting for roughly 80.2 million of the entire population. This population therefore signifies the economic and societal importance of the female to the country. The African society however places expectation on females to marry and become submissive to their husbands and in some cases drop the personal interest and ambitions. Early marriage impairs the realization and enjoyment of virtually every one of their right. (Tilak 2015), the imposition of marriage partner on a girl-child deprives her of freedom, opportunity for person development and other rights including health, education and well-being. Early marriage is seen differently by different people. It is relative to people and place. Marriage which is considered early here might be an ideal age in other part of the world. To Onuoha (2019) early marriage is a situation where female children are given away in an unripe age by their parents to enable their bride price to be used for the education or training of the male children. According to Mavis (2019), early marriage is the type of marriage between two people who are below marriageable age, usually agreed for them by their parents. It is a marriage between young girls and older men. Early marriage is the marriage between spouses when both or the lady spouse is no mature enough to appreciate the essence of marriage. Adebayo (2015), before the age of 18 years early marriage represents a major to a child is well-being while the practice affects a girl child badly. The mostly fundament right of a girl child to survive, to develop are undermined. She is left out with little or no opportunity to influence her own life (Sadik, 2015). Early marriage truncates the girl - child and can lead to preproduction of poverty from one generation to next (United Nations, 1989, Singh, 2018). Early marriage has become a social problem in many subSaharan African countries because it tends to lead to school dropouts, illegal abortions, child abandonment, increasing number of adolescent prostitution, early breakages of marriages, and growing rate of HIV/AIDS particularly among the girl child. (Ajayi2018). In many countries especially among the poor migrants or displaced communities, marriages at young is not uncommon, usually it is the girls who marry early compared to boys (Lewis 2016). This is gender inequality presents in all aspects of the society, lack of life skill and negotiating power (Lewis 2016).

Annan, (2016), opined that early marriage is the type of marriage that fails to put the both parties consent into consideration which could lead to disastrous experiences. Early marriage also defined by the (F.R.N., 1999), Federal Republic of Nigerian constitution of 1999 as any marriage before the age of 18 years. (Wluml, 2013), women living under Muslim law in Afighistan define early marriage as a type that humiliate women's dignity violently as well as deprive them so many opportunities life can offer. This situation which early marriage has subjected a girl-child is alarming and could seek attention among government, educationist, professional, students and the society at large. This is partly because early marriage appears to be more pronounced, irrespective of the huge task already done by developing countries to prevent such an outdated practice. It interferes with the right and freedom of the girl child. Marriage at a very young age has very serious consequences for both the child parents and the children. In the past, some studies have worked assiduously to measure the implications of early marriage on education of the girl child which could be attributed to poor education background of the girl child family, economic status of the country and gender inequality (Moemeka, 2018). (Lyold and Mensch, 2018), are of the opinion that women with poor education background could be traced from the world go, and the girl-child in question may have no interest on education as well as poor abilities to cope, there by grabbing the little opportunities of leaving in the name of marriage to run away of such responsibilities. In (Ethopia, 2005), some parents are sincerely of the opinion that school dropout syndrome could be linked with early marriage in other to prevent some ugly behaviours of their children i.e. unwanted pregnancies, rape, suicide attempt. (Ngugen and Wodon, 2012).

CAUSES OF EARLY GIRL-CHILD MARRIAGE

1. Financial uncertainty: Financial uncertainty is a critical contributing factor to early girl-child marriage. In the sense that, where the parents of the child are faced with acute uncertainty of finances, their young girls may be seen as expensive and a burden. This can lead to the parents marrying her off to an older man at a very young age. In traditional African societies, the bride’s family may receive cattle from the family of the groom. Furthermore poor families tend to marry off their girls at the same time with a view to reducing the expenses of marriage ceremonies.
2. Cultural Expectation: As a result of cultural expectation, where young girls are lured into early marriages in order to fit into the expectations of their community. opines that societal expectation pressure parents to allow their girls under the age of 18 years because of prestige. As failure to confirm with these expectations can lead to ridicule and disapproval.
3. Religious Belief: Religious beliefs have played a key role in girl-child marriage, as some religious beliefs do not condemn marriage to under aged girls and this has thereby encouraged the perpetuation of such acts. In addition, as a result of religious expectations, parents force their daughters to marry whomever they get pregnant for.
4. Family alliances: Marriage is a union between two families and some parents lure their girl-child’s into marriage in order to consolidate family alliances. According to a report by UNIFPA, some marriages in Africa and Asia are seen as a means of strengthening the relationships between families or settling disputes. According to a report by 25 in some cases the children are betrothed even before birth.
5. Kidnapping The rising case of insecurity in Africa, particularly Nigeria has seen the rise of kidnapping and other criminal vices. This has seen young girls kidnapped on their way to school or at school premises and thereafter forced into marriage by their captives. The case of abduction and eventual forceful marriage and impregnation of some of the Chibok girls in the northern part of Nigeria is a typical example of this.
6. Traditional practice: A number of traditional practices contribute to early girl-child marriage for instance, practices such as female genital circumcision (FGC) where part of all of the female genital is removed for cultural reasons. It is believed that the process improves the health of the girl child, hygiene, prospects of marriage and fertility. It is estimated that about 140 million women have gone through the process of FGC.
7. Ignorance: One of the significant causes of early girlchild marriage is ignorance on the part of the parents. Ignorance in the sense that some parents have the opinion that their daughters are safer when they are married off early so as to prevent sexual attacks and violence.
8. Community pressure: The pressure girls face as a result of their status in the society contributes in early marriage. A study carried out by UN in 2004, established that women are regarded as inferior in African and Asian societies. posits that girls are seen as burdens because of the fact that they will eventually get married into another family as such they prefer to educate their boys and marry off their girl child at an early age.
9. Control of unintended pregnancy: Most societies in Africa and Asia frown upon pregnancy prior to marriage. As such, most families seek to marry off their girl child before they get pregnant outside marriage. A report by UNICEF established that unmarried girls are seen as liability to the honor of the family and in order to guarantee chastity and virginity of the bride they are married off early to avoid dishonoring the family.
10. Limited educational attainment of parents: Africa is continent that is still developing and as such most countries have a significant population that lack educational qualification and form of training. This therefore exposes them to a lot societal superstitions and misinterpretations of marriage. As a result, this makes them gullible to any superstition or misconceptions that have been passed down from generation to generation regarding early-child marriage. According to 30 the education of parents greatly affects the timing and type of union.
11. Limited or no access to health information services: This is a serious contributory factor to the continuous practice of early girl-child marriage. This is because parents who engage in this practice are not fully abreast with the consequences of early girl-child marriage on their daughter. These include confinement to household roles, sexual abuse, discontinuation of education, exposure to maternal death, Vesico-Virginal Fistulae (VVF) and sexually transmitted diseases. According a report by WHO in 2018, adolescent mothers aged between 10 to 19 have a higher likelihood of experiencing eclampsia, systematic infections as well as puerperal endometritis when compared to older mothers.

Impact of Early Marriage on Girl Child Education

The school is the most important institution outside the family involved in socializing young people into all dimensions of adult roles and responsibilities. Many years of schooling has been associated with many positive outcomes, including later ages of marriage, lower fertility and healthier and better educated children. (Otoo-Oyotey, 2003). Marriage often means the end of educational development for women. In the case of early marriage, girls may be deprived for vital education needed for their preparation into adulthood, their effective contribution to the future well-being of their family and society, and their capacity to earn and make a living. The education a girl receives is the strongest predictor of the age she will marry. The most important documented implication of its loss is that girl grows up with hindered sense or no sense at all, of the right to assert her won point of view and little experience, as women are barred from participation in political, economic and cultural decisions - making processes. Early marriage has disrupted the chances of a girl child to inherit the goal of equality in education for girls and boys for the universal right to education by the Development goals (MDGs) adopted by the 191 members states of the united Nation in 2000.Early marriage truncates the girl - child and can lead to preproduction of poverty from one generation to next (United Nations, 1989, Singh, 2018). Early marriage has become a social problem in many subSaharan African countries because it tends to lead to school dropouts, illegal abortions, child abandonment, increasing number of adolescent prostitution, early breakages of marriages, and growing rate of HIV/AIDS particularly among the girl child. (Ajayi2018).

General Consequences of Early Marriage:

Having established the significant prevalence of early marriage in Nigeria, and the social constructs that make people value and perpetuate it, this study places particular importance on analyzing the impact on the Nigerian Economy.

Instability of marriage: Results of the Pathfinder quantitative survey show that about 27 percent of marriages in urban areas and 19 percent in rural areas had ended in divorce or separation. Of those that had married more than once, nearly 56 percent reported that their first marriage ended either because they were too young or “not interested” in the marriage. Nearly 52 percent of these dissolved marriages ended within 3 years (Ajayi2018). Individual conversations report that many girls run away from marriages only to be sent back by their parents. These women often end up in cities expanding the population of commercial sex workers.)

Termination of Education: The Millennium Development Goals for universal female education are showing results in Nigeria, as 23 percent of the respondents were currently attending school and more than 80 percent of girls aged 12 to 14 were in school. Of significance, however, is the fact that among out-of school respondents, 28 percent cited marriage and 19 percent cited childrearing obligations as their reasons for leaving. Four percent cited their husbands’ disapproval of their school attendance (Ajayi 2018).

Inability to plan or manage families: Statistically, women who marry early are likely to bear more children than those who marry later. Young mothers exercise less influence and control over their children and have less ability to make decisions about their nutrition, health care, and household management.

Impact on Health of Women/Girls: Young girls can face considerable physical pain associated with sexual intercourse as a result of the physiological immaturity of their sexual organs. Complications due to pregnancy at a young age frequently include obstetric fistula (perforation of the bladder or bowel, due to prolonged delivery). They are also vulnerable to exposure to HIV/AIDS due to multiple partners among men with much younger wives.

Various Policy Interventions to Curb Early Marriage in Africa

Stakeholders at various fora both local and at international levels have sought to reduce the incidence of early marriage using both prevention and service support interventions. Legal and policy interventions to outlaw early marriages and protect the girl child have emerged as the major prevention program. Other prevention interventions include girl child education programs, and mass media sensitization projects to educate parents about the dangers of child marriages as well as economic empowerment programs to improve the economic status of girls within the family. Support interventions target the already married adolescent to provide legal, psychosocial, livelihood skills and microcredit services to vulnerable child wives.

Child rights, child protection legislative prevention approaches

Child rights, enforcement and legal protection approaches have been promoted by UNICEF and

the Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) in the UNDP from as early as 2001 as a

mechanism for catalyzing political leadership and compliance with global standards and conventions. DAW and the UNICEF have argued that in protecting the rights of the girl child international standards on elimination of discrimination and violence against girl children are an important starting point. Thus a comprehensive package of international legislation and conventions on child rights in general and the rights of the girl child in particular have been recommended throughout countries with high rates of early marriage as an effective means of reducing the scourge.

Several governments on the continent have adopted global standards and legislation to prevent

early marriages. Governments have also established legal minimum ages at marriage for both women and men and have sought to protect the rights of the child through legislative instruments. Global and regional legal instruments with implications for early marriage in Africa

include:

1. · The Convention on the Rights of the Child
2. · The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
3. · The Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration
4. of Marriages (1964) Articles 1, 2 and 3
5. · The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination of Women (1979)
6. Articles 2 and 16
7. · The United Nations Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institution and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956), Article 1(c)
8. · Plan of Action for the Elimination of Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of
9. Women and Children
10. · The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights
11. · The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990) Article XXI
12. · Key international and regional human rights instruments relating to child marriage
13. · The Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration
14. of Marriages (1964)
15. · The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976) Article 12
16. · The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989)
17. · Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women
18. in Africa (known as the Maputo Protocol) (2003) Article 6, clauses (a), (b), (d)

Despite the domestication and enactment of relevant legislation, enforcement still remains a

challenge in most countries in Africa including Nigeria.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Social Disorganization Theory

The proponents of social disorganization theory according to Mills (1943), valued a smooth-working, culturally homogeneous social system in which people adapt their behavior to accepted norms. Through this vision of the ideal society, they now determine who and what their social problems were. In every society ‘traditional or modern, there are always social sanctioned behavior pattern which people are bound to. Hence, we have socialization which makes sure that there is continuity and order in the society. However, more often than not, there are certain breakdowns of these socially sanctioned behavior patterns. The organization of society was made possible therefore by sets of norms, or rules for appropriate behavior. Deviant behaviors where due to the existence of social disorganization within parts of the social system Social disorganization give rise to social disequilibrium because poverty and poor managerial system deprive people not to abide by the norms. It gives rise to deviant behaviors. It has also been responsible for the alienations and exploitations of girls in early marriage. Many are denied of their education, social rites because of early marriage.

2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Osakinle and Falana (2014), conducted a study on the impact of early marriage on education of the girl-child in senior secondary school Education in Abakaliki Local Government Area of Ebonyi State. The study examined how early marriage hinders the educational ambition of the girlchild. How early marriage limit the full development of the potential of the girl child. How it encourage poor academic performance of the child. The study gave some reasons why people or girls join early marriage. Poverty, environment, socialcultural background study went further to recommend that there should be direct counseling programs about early marriage for the girl-child. Moral instructions should also be re-emphasized to assist or aid young girls who may fall into the temptations of getting into early marriage. Counseling services should be extended to non-school setting to help parents eradicate the notion or superstition of early marriage among their children especially females. Counselors are to enlighten the public on their services to families to live an exemplary moral life.

In a study by Ngozi O.(2020) on Early Marriage and its Impact on Girl’s Education in Abakaliki Education Zone of Ebonyi State. Four research questions were formulated to guide the study; a descriptive survey design was adopted. The population of the study was four hundred and forth eight (448) teachers. The researcher used simple random sampling technique to draw the sample for the study. Twenty eight (28) respondents were randomly selected from each of the five (5) selected schools. Structured questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. The researcher used Test-re-test method to determine the reliability of the instrument, and a reliability coefficient of 0.89 was obtained, using the spearman's rank order (rho). All the copies of the questionnaire were dully completed and returned with no instrument mortality. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive mean statistics (x) to give verifiable answers to the problems and objectives of the research. The findings revealed that early marriage results negatively to the poor academic performances of a girl-child, that early marriage results to school dropout, hinders educational ambition and finally limits the full development of academic potentials of the girlchild in that area. It is recommended that government should enact a law prohibiting parents irrespective of tribe and religion on forcing their female children to get married at tender age when ought to be in school, also map out strategies to encourage female education, there should be public enlightenment campaigns to educate parents on the importance of educating female children as well motivate women on the importance of education through scholarships, bursary award and other kinds of financial assistance