THE IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY ON VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Vocational Studies Vocational Courses are broad, complex and multi-faceted concepts that can applied to several fields. Their multi-disciplinary accounts for a variety of approaches and conceptualization. As wehner, Csikzentmihalyi and Magyari – Beck (1991) pointed out the mass of research on creativity can be compared to the elephant in the fable in which blind men have to touch it in order to describe it, and this is what vocational courses stands for. As everyone is touching a different part they all come to a different conclusion as to what it is, and fail to recognize it as an elephant. Indeed, one of the blocks in the study of creativity has been the tendency to conceive one of its aspects as the whole, offering a narrow vision of the phenomenon (Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). It is therefore necessary to consider existing research on creativity and innovation in order to:

Despite the plethora of approaches, there seems to be a widespread consensus on the definition of both creativity and innovation; even if their applications and interpretations differ. Creativity has been understood as the “ability to produce work that is both novel and appropriate” (Sternberg & Lubart, 1997). Innovation has been understood as the “implementation of a new or significantly improved product (goods or services), or process a new marketing method, or a new organization method in business practices, workplace organization or external relations” (OECD, 2005). Craft (2005) sees creativity as the ability to see possibilities that others haven’t noticed, Esquivel (1995) sees it as the critical process involved in the generation of new ideas. Innovation has also been defined as the “intentional introduction and application within a job, work, team, or organization of ideas, processes, products, or procedures that are new to that job, work team or organization. Creativity and innovation are obviously interrelated. Creativity as mentioned before is seen as the “infinite source of innovation” (EC, 2008c), and innovation if one deduces from the above definition, can in turn be perceived as the implementation and application of creativity (Craft, 2005). Moreover, different fields seems to favour once concept above the other. For instance, in business, the word “innovation” is used even when it referred to the creative process and work (Sternberg and Lubart, 1999). As innovation can be seen as the application of a creative process or product, the product of this chapter will be primarily on vocational courses as relates to creativity and understanding of what it is and how it can be framed. Our first concern is to enhance the conceptualization of creativity, which is often influenced as Runco (1999) suggests by a general implicit understanding and tacit knowledge of creativity. Creativity is often perceived as synonymous for imagination and originality, and is allegedly connected to the visual arts, music and artistic performance. if one were to build on these assumptions, the implication for education would be reductionism: ceativity would be seen as the domain of the arts only and therefore, restricted to certain specific courses. Although, recognizing the relevance of the visual arts, music, drama and the likes for creative education, it should not be forgotten that all areas of knowledge particularly in vocational courses and all other courses can benefit from its creativity.

Vocational Education is defined as the activities which aim at acquiring the skills, knowledge and attitudes that are required for employment in a particular occupation, cluster of related occupations or a function in a field of economic activity including business, agriculture, hotel, catering, fine and applied arts, tourist industries, private and public services, etc. In a nutshell, Vocational Education is concerned with the skills, understandings, attitudes, knowledge, abilities and competences which a person needs to acquire in order to do or carry out a particular job. It is also a form of education that emphasizes the development of occupational and procedural skills needed as preparation for work.

Akaninwor (2004) defines Vocational Education as a type of education or training designed for preparing the individual learner to earn a living (to be self-reliant).

Osula (2004) opined that any education which is necessary for effective employment in an occupation if Vocational. He further explained that Vocational Education assumes that a choice of occupation has made and that appropriate training is needed to enable an individual enter or advance in his chosen occupation.

According to Okolocha and lie (2005) Vocational Education programs focus on the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competencies as necessary equipment for the individual to live in adapts to the real work situation and contributes to the development of his society.

Uko-Aviomoh and Ajuluchi (2008) asserted that Vocational and Technical Education is said to train or develop individual in the fields of vocation and technology so that the country can through the activities of such experts enjoy the good fruit of technology and at the same time contribute her own quota to the overall technological development of the world.

Vocational and Technical Education has also been described by Udoye (2005) as the education that prepares students mainly for occupations requiring manipulative skills and is designed to develop skills, abilities, understanding, attitude and work habits needed for useful and productive basis. It therefore means that Vocational and Technical education is that type of education that needs the inculcation of practical skills into recipients so that they will be able to practice experiences; they acquired in real life situations.

Eya (2001) stated that Vocational Education is a preparation for occupation endeavors in agricultural education and business education. This means that Vocational education is a training, that equips learners with the knowledge and skills in the productive, distributive, and service industries for self or paid employment, Vocational Technical education can also be regarded as the education that enables one to acquire knowledge and skills in the Vocational and Technical areas to systematically solve human or societal problems

General and academic education is seen as that which builds analytical skills, knowledge and critical thinking. VET develops craftsmanship, practical experience and practical problem-solving. A ‘Vocation Means direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish, and also useful to his associates’ by Stevenson, (2005). The Importance of Vocational Courses at University Level According to Dike (2005), vocational education and training “prepares learners for careers that are based in manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic and totally related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation.” In other words, it is an “education designed to develop occupational skills. Vocational and technical education gives individuals the skills to “live, learn and work as a productive citizen in a global society” (Chaedar, 2002). The provision of vocational and technical schools has a long history. Before the Industrial Revolution (between 1750 and 1830) the home and the “apprenticeship system” were the principal sources of vocational education. But societies were later forced by the decline of handwork and specialization of occupational functions to develop institutions of vocational education (Duffy, 1967). Manual training that involves general instruction in the use of hand tools was said to have developed initially in Scandinavia (Dike, 2004). However, vocational education became popular in the elementary schools in the United States after 1880 and developed into courses in industrial training, bookkeeping, stenography, and allied commercial work in both public and private institutions. As the Columbia Encyclopedia (2001) noted some of the early private trade schools in the United States include Cooper Union (1859) and Pratt Institute (1887), the Hampton Institute (1868) and Tuskegee Institute (1881). The agricultural high school (1888) of the University of Minnesota was the first regularly established public vocational secondary school that introduced extensive public instruction in agriculture. (Chaedar, 2002)

The number of public and private vocational schools has greatly increased in the United States since 1900. There was an impetus on vocational education during World War II (1939-1945) when the armed services had great need for technicians that the civilian world could not supply. There was a further upsurge on vocational training from the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 (the G. I. Bill of Rights), which allowed World War II veterans to receive tuition and subsistence during extended vocational training. There was also the Manpower Development Training Act (1962), the Vocational Education Act (1963), and the Vocational Education Amendments (1968) and the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act (1984). These programs help to improve the nation’s workforce and ensure that vocational training is available for economically (and physically) challenged youths. While technical and vocational education has continued to thrive in many societies Nigeria has neglected this aspect of education. Consequently, the society lacks skilled technicians: bricklayers, carpenters, painters and auto mechanics; laboratory and pharmacy technicians, electrical/electronic technicians and skilled vocational nurses, etc). The hospitals are no longer a place where people go to get their ailments treated, but a place they go and die. Tales abound of how people die during surgeries and out of minor ailments. And the half-baked roadside mechanics in the society cause more harm to vehicles when contracted to service vehicles, and because of poor training some of the commercial drivers have sent many people to their early death. The shabby performance of Nigeria’s house builders (mason/bricklayers, etc) is no longer news. For that individuals with important projects now use competent technicians from neighboring countries. This is not to mention the havoc the poorly trained technicians have caused in the power sector. Nigeria’s spotty electricity supply is the greatest bottleneck to national development. And toiling all day in the field with knives, hoes, and shovels would not feed the nation’s 140 million people. Mechanized farming requires technical skills that could be obtained in technical and vocational schools.

Every facet of the economy has been affected by lack of skilled technicians. The financial sector lacks technicians to regulate the banks and to develop financial software to properly tackle the rising fraudulent activities in the banking sector. Without security development is impossible in a society; no nation can sustain its democracy if the citizens lack confidence in the police. The police violate the citizens’ human and civil rights and lack forensic laboratory and fingerprint technicians to conduct criminal investigations. And because of lack of tools to track down criminals there was a shameful episode recently in the society where the police paraded a goat/sheep as a thief. It is only in Nigeria that a human being could transform into an animal. And due to poor training military officers are known to beat up the citizens who challenge their powers; the case of Miss Uzoma Okere and some naval officers is a case in point The danger posed by environmental pollution and fake drugs is alarming; the less educated in the society lack the skill to manage AIDS, cancer and diabetes among other serious health problems. One wonders what the nation’s health minister and the 36 state health commissioners are doing to tackle these issues. Any person who still thinks that leadership is not a major cause.

Instructional Roles of Teachers of Vocational and Technical Education In Nigerian University Education

One of the basic concerns of VTE is to bring about economic and technological development through adequate training of students of the program who would be able to acquire the skills, knowledge and values that are required in the world of work for effective performance. VTE also aims at tackling the problem of low level of Technical skill, which is responsible for low productivity and poverty in the developing countries like Nigeria. VTE may not achieve this objective unless the instructors are able to fulfill the role of effectively teaching the students (Okoro, 2005).

This role is possible if teachers of Vocational and Technical Education possess three basic qualities or characteristics;

1. Practical occupational skill in an occupational area.
2. Theoretical scientific and technological knowledge in their area of specialization.
3. Pedagogical knowledge and teaching skills necessary in classrooms, laboratory and workshop situations (Okoro, 2005: 5).

These characteristic traits advocate that the technology teacher should possess adequate and sufficient practical experience necessary for imparting the skills he possessed. However, there has been the difficulty of getting VTE teachers who possess all qualities of practical skills, pedagogical skills and industrial experience.

In case of this difficulty, Okoro (2005) suggests that VTE instructors who possess adequate practical skills and industrial experience but who lack the pedagogical expertise should be considered preferably.

Momoh (2008) noted that absence of adequate practical skills by VTE teachers would make nonsense of the whole training program.

Lack of practical skill will only boil down to mere possession of theoretical information by students without adequate practical skills to effectively engage in the occupational area for which the students received their training (Okoro, 2005; Wipawin, 2004).

Success will be achieved when the VTE teacher reaches out to society and interact with the needs of society based on the existing agenda in the institution (Schutter and Van der Sijde, 2000).

The use of ICT for instruction definitely reveals that the role of VTE teacher must change if he must achieve positive result in his educational practice and instructional delivery.

It is expected that he must engage actively in what is going on outside his institutions environment so as to communicate and impart knowledge with the newest and most appropriate delivery methods (Lorensten, 2004).

It is a wide overview that by so doing, the VTE teacher must have succeeded in changing the existing industrial but traditional cultures to becoming knowledge economics.

Hence, it behooves the thoughtful VTE teacher the role to use ICT devices to train students who can possess the ability to think clearly and creatively. By this achievement, the VTE teacher must have succeeded in producing students who can generate new ideas, invent new products, device new services and suggest quality improvement necessary for improved economy (Wipawin, 2004).

It is believed that when students acquire skills, they make themselves more productive, able to produce more output and income for a given amount of time and would commonly also make themselves more adaptable to changes (Asian Development Bank-ADB, 2004).

Without a workforce that is continuously acquiring new skills, it would be difficult to reap most of the returns from technological progress (Booth & Snower, 1996) as cited in ADB (2004).

More so, World Bank (2002) as cited in ADB (2004) noted that technological change has shifted demand toward higher skills in the labour force and that these new technologies are knowledge and skill intensive, thus there is a need to train people to work with these technologies (UNESDOC, 2001).

The projection is that if people become skillfully empowered, entrepreneurially oriented and creatively nurtured, these people could contribute to environmentally sound sustainable development through their occupations and other areas of their lives. The university environment must therefore, delineate the TVE teacher’s role from that of a lecturer to more of a guide, resulting in learning being more individualized and interactive process.

This changing role of the TVE teachers as noted by Singh, O’Donoghue and Worton (2005) should bear on the teaching style (methods), teaching technique, and motivation to facilitate web-based instruction.

Factors Affecting the Effective Teaching and Learning of Vocational Courses in Nigerian Universities

Several factors pose as factors affecting the effective teaching and learning of Vocational and Technical Education Courses in Nigeria University in the 21st century. These factors are highlighted and discussed below:

Many Universities in Nigeria were unable to build lecture halls, students’ hostels, equip laboratories and workshops and payment of staff salaries, research grants, allowances and medical bills (Ivara and Mbanefo cited in Asiyai 2005). Even the FGN/ASUU Re-negotiation Committee (2009) realized as widely acknowledged that the key to the survival of Nigeria in the 21st century lies in the country’s ability to produce applied and theoretical knowledge in science, technology and humanities and hence the Renegotiation Committee arrived at a consensus on the need for a rational and scientific procedure for determining the funding requirements to begin the revitalizing the Nigerian university system. Despites all efforts made the Nigerian government have not showed enough commitment towards adequate funding University.

1 Inadequate teaching staff and poor quality of teaching staff

A big challenge to the attainment of quality University Education in Nigeria is the lack of academic staff.

Ajayi (2007) seems to concur with the above when he noted that good teachers are needed for good education which in turn is indispensable for social change, social transformation and national development. The importance of teachers cannot be over emphasized. Despite the importance of teachers in the attainment of good education, universities in Nigeria are short of Lecturers to adequately handle teaching and learning activities. The institutions because of inadequate funding are not able to employ additional Lecturers. The few available Lecturers are seriously over worked. Even in some universities in the country, because of shortage of Lecturers their programmes are not accredited by the accreditation agencies. Attainment of good quality in higher education requires teaching staff of adequate quantity and quality.

Bamiro, (2012) attributed the problem of de-intellectualization of the academia to low quality of staff of some universities in Nigeria. Where there is inadequate teaching staff and poor quality of Lecturers, the attainment of good quality in the university will be difficult.

2 Poor policy implementation

Poor policy implementation is a challenge to quality delivery in education. The poor quality delivery is responsible for the abysmal low performance of graduates of university in Nigeria in their world of work and the alarming incidence of examination malpractice.

Okoroma, (2001) noted that money the government votes for running the institution does not get to the institutions and the little that gets there is normally wasted by education managers. Additionally, in Nigerian university little attention is paid to teaching effectiveness of academic staff. The “publish or perish” syndrome which places more emphasis on research makes Lecturers to be more committed to research.

Akinmusuru, (2009) attributed the low quality of Nigerian universities graduates to little attention given to teaching effectiveness, stressing that institutional policies are not geared towards making students learning a priority.

3 Lack of resources

Quality education is dependent on the quality and quantity of human and material resources put in place in the university. The lack of infrastructures such as science laboratories, workshops, students’ hostels, libraries and electricity will affect the quality of education. For good quality delivery, these facilities must meet the minimum standard specified by the National Universities Commission (NUC).

The undesirable conditions of university in Nigeria have been worrisome to many scholars (Asiyai, 2005 and Odetunde 2004). Students of the university in

Nigeria are learning in dilapidated buildings which are poorly ventilated, illuminated, furnished and environmentally depressing and disabling situations.

Even many Lecturers share small offices. Worried about the poor quality of graduates of university in Nigeria, the national universities commission carried out a need assessment survey which was reported by Okebukola, (2005) and highlighted the following:

• only about 30% of Nigerian students’ population has adequate access to classrooms, workshop, lecture halls, laboratories and libraries.
• Deficient libraries in terms of currency and number of books, journals, and electronic support facilities.
• Inadequate academic calendar resulting from staff unions’ industrial action premised on low salary, wages/welfare and students strikes often time related to inadequate facilities.
• Lack of practical experience, often times resulting from deficient facilities. These factors above are all threats to quality attainment in higher education in Nigeria.

4 Lack of information communication technology facilities

Another Factor Affecting the Effective Teaching and Learning of Technical and Vocational Education courses in Nigeria is lack of information communication technology facilities in institutions of higher learning. As part of her education reform effort Nigerian government adopted information communication technologies in all levels of education since information communication technology integration in educational practices is meant to improve teaching and learning, enhance higher education research, enhance collaboration among peers and improve quality of education. Unfortunately, most universities in the country, there is acute short of computers, multi-media projectors, electronic white boards, and automation of lecture halls and Lecturers offices. Even majority of the institutions are not linked with functional internet connectivity.

As rightly noted by Onuma, (2007) information and communication technologies could be used to prepare lesson plan, collect data and analyze students’ achievement. Curriculum content could be enriched through search from the internet by teachers. Through such internet search, information and relevant school practices which are unknown to teachers and students and which cannot be found in textbooks, can easily be downloaded for use.

Information and communication technology in education has been continuously linked to higher efficiency, higher productivity and higher educational outcomes, including quality of cognitive, creative, and innovative thinking (Olatoye, 2011).

Despite the role of information communication technologies in enhancing teaching and learning, researches abound in support of lack of information communication technology tools in institutions of higher learning in the country (Asiyai, 2010).

5 Frequent labour disputes and closures of universities

A big factor affecting the effective teaching and learning of Vocational and Technical Education courses in Nigeria is the incessant Staff Union disputes and subsequent closures of the institutions. Closure of the institutions affects staff productivity and the realization of educational aim and objectives.

Asiyai (2005) provided a catalogue of strikes by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) and the Senior Staff Association of Nigerian Universities (SSANU) within fourteen years. She revealed that they were too many strikes, some of which lasted up to six months.

Asiyai (2006) identified the variables inducing the frequent trade union disputes as poor conditions of service of staff, non implementation of ASUU/FGN or SSANU/FGN agreements, lack of autonomy and academic freedom and poor funding.

The universities in Nigeria closed down in July 2, 2013 as a result of failure of the federal government to implement the agreement reached with the academic staff union of universities since 2009, despite all assurances and memorandum of understanding between the two parties. The disruption of academic programmes of institutions of higher learning affects students learning outcomes, since Lecturers find it difficult to complete the course work. The frequent disputes and strike galore by University Staff and students leave students with little or no time to complete both their theoretical and practical work. In most cases a semester’s course work is sandwiched to few weeks during which lectures are rushed to accommodate the time lost to strike.

This type of academic rush is a big threat to attainment of quality in higher education in Nigeria.

Adeboye, (2003) in his study noted that the higher the level of crisis, disruptions and hostility, the lower the level of productivity, standard and quality of the products of the system.

6 Lack of vibrant staff development programmes

Most universities in Nigeria lack staff development programme for training and re-training of staff. Vibrant staff development programme on a continuous basis will help academics and non-academics to clarify and modify their behaviour, attitude, value, skills and competencies. In this way, they grow and develop in their knowledge and thus become more effective and efficient in the performance of tasks. Staff development is paramount because knowledge of today is only sufficient for today. In this era of knowledge explosion and emergent knowledge based economy, staff development should be the priority of any nation.

Peretomode, (2008) argued that the weakness of post graduate programmes of some universities in Nigeria required a strong staff development programme for staff. He maintained that universities are staffed by Lecturers who are not familiar with the topography of educational landscape and have never been expected to formulate their own philosophies of education or their own views about teaching and learning.

Peretomode and Chukwuma (2007) in their study revealed that a significant relationship existed between manpower development and Lecturers productivity.

In addition, Asiyai and Oghuvbu (2009) reported that lack of staff development programmes accounted for the decline in quality of university education in Nigeria.

Similarly, Adeogun, (2006) noted that an employee who is not trained and exposed to continuous retraining in the modern methods and new discoveries in his or her field will soon become irrelevant to the organization. Due to lack of opportunity for retraining and none mentoring of junior Lecturers by professors, the junior Lecturers are not exposed to new ideas, facts, theories and research findings in higher education.

Various scholars have reported the deficiency of Teacher Education Programme in Nigeria (Okeke, 2001; Falayayo, 2004; Ajayi, 2007). This calls for addition training of teachers if quality in university education is to be attained in the country.

7 Cultism and other vices

Another big factor affecting the effective teaching and learning of Vocational Technical Education courses in Nigeria is the increasing activities of secret cult groups, kidnappers and other vices. The universities in Nigeria are under siege barded and almost ruined by secret cults (Onoyase and Onoyase 2005). As a result of the activities of cult groups and kidnappers’ majority of students, Lecturers and their families live in perpetual fear. Some of these cult groups indulge in arm robbery, rape, assassination and infrastructure destruction. They cheat in the examination openly and threaten Lecturers when caught. While academic and senior staff of universities in the country are being hunted by kidnappers and those kidnapped are made to pay huge sum of money as ransom before they are released. The tensions induced on members of higher education institution communities as a result of the activities of these secret cult groups and kidnappers tend to generate negative impacts on quality of higher education in Nigeria. Another big challenge to administrators of universities in Nigeria is students’ uprising. Handling demonstration and strikes by students in protest of their rights or government insensitivity to demands by the civil society.

8 Brain drain

A big factor affecting the effective teaching and learning of Technical and Vocational Education courses in Nigeria is the problem of brain drain. Over the past decades, there has been mass exodus of brilliant and most talented Lecturers to other sectors of the economy. Some of the Lecturers left Nigerian universities to join the business world, some joined politics while others left Nigeria for better services.

As succinctly put by Alli, (2000) many experienced and young Lecturers are fleeing Nigeria from the frustration of university life into more rewarding and more challenging sectors of the economy and even to overseas countries. There is diminishing scope of mentoring junior researchers by seasoned and senior Lecturers in Nigeria due to brain drain. Brain drain has led to decline in research outputs from institutions of higher learning in Nigeria vis-à-vis the disappearance of research centers in Nigerian universities.

Research brings about improvement in teaching and learning (Asiyai, 2009) but when there is exodus of brilliant and seasoned academics from institutions of higher learning, the quality of education delivery is threatened.

9 Poor leadership

Poor leadership both at the government level and at the institution level have been a big challenge to quality in higher education in Nigeria. Since the nineties, the government of the country has not shown enough commitment to higher education development in Nigeria. One of the several indices for properly evaluating government commitment to educational development in any country is budgetary allocation and disbursement to education. UNESCO had recommended 26% budgetary allocation to education based on GNP but the amount allocated to education by Nigerian government has continued to be smaller when compared to other African countries. For example, budgetary allocation to education as percentage of GNP was 0.7%, South Africa was 7.9%, Ghana was 4.2%, Kenya was 6.5% and Sub-Sahara 4.2% in 2005 (Uhunmwuangbo, 2005).

A World Bank Report cited by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU, 2013) noted that in 2012 Nigeria’s GDP was 262.2 billion USD while allocation to education was 1.96 billion USD, the amount spent by Nigeria for the entire education sector being less than what individual universities spend on education in some countries. It is clear that the government of the country is not committed to quality education. Additionally, poor leadership of some Nigerian university administrators has been a bane to the attainment of quality in higher education in Nigeria.

Accordingly Osiebe (1995) argued that poor leadership of some university administrators by not involving staff union members in decision making while Iyayi, (2002) argued that dismissal of some academics without following due process were indication of poor governance which made many academic staff de-motivated to serious academic pursuit.

Additionally Bamiro, (2012) maintained that the unfavorable governance which lead to series of strikes resulting to closure of some institutions for up to 177days since 1993 to the present day accounted for low quality in university education in Nigeria. This unhealthy situation could lead to strained relations between university staff unions and management, increased hostility and aggression and increased mutual suspicion which are all threats to mutual co-existence for the attainment of good quality in institutions of higher learning.

Information and Communication Technology in Education

In most countries, the use of ICT tools in the educational process has become crucial in order to modernize services, improve teachers' skills and increase student performance. The transformation of the Romanian society into an information society and the development of informatics required a thorough and diversified training of the young people in this field. Different stakeholders in society (authorities, parents, business community, pupils, learners, students, etc.) are increasingly urging the education sector to consider integrating Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into the classroom, taking into account the rapid process of transforming society into a knowledge-based society in which the use of technology has become a core competence. ICT tools used both in education and society are in constant change, and studies in this field can barely keep up with this technology development. Thus, most ICT reports and publications were written at the beginning of the 21st century when Web 1.0 technologies were used. Over time, Web 2.0 applications have appeared and developed, and in the period 2010-2020, it is expected to switch to Web 3.0, technologies for which there are less information and studies. Information and Communication Technology is a set of tools that have a great capacity to expand educational opportunities, both formal and informal, beyond the areas served so far, namely among rural and dispersed populations, within groups traditionally excluded from education, for cultural or social reasons (ethnic minorities, women, disabled or elderly) among all those who, due to costs or time constraints, have been unable to join the education system. A defining feature of Information and Communication Technology refers to its ability to transcend time and space, making possible the asynchronous learning or learning characterized by a gap between the time of delivery and the receipt of study materials. In addition, some types of ICT, such as teleconferencing or videoconferencing, make it possible to receive study materials simultaneously by several learners in different geographic areas. Information and Communication Technology can, to a great extent, support the revival of the educational process, but teaching methods do not automatically improve due to the ICT implementation in the classroom. It is necessary for ICT to be embedded in the educational process in a careful, balanced way, the benefits of ICT being achieved especially when attention is paid to the entire educational environment and not only to technology as a medium for the transmission of information.12 Achieving innovation in education through Information and Communication Technology is realised taking into account the range of educational opportunities available that offer various opportunities for ICT use within this system.

Firstly, ICT can be used in education as a tool by which teachers can create an electronic agenda, an electronic monitoring system for students, or they can search for information to prepare lessons, and students can make attractive presentations or communicate with each other or with the teachers. 

In addition to its utility as a tool, ICT offers many other possibilities for use in education, giving rise to additional benefits. Thus, education can become more flexible by separating the learning process in time and space, that is, by making it out of the classroom, which may be for to adults eager to study outside the daily education system, at work, the benefit of sick children for a long period of time or people with disabilities. Due to its flexibility, the eLearning system can increase people's involvement in lifelong learning. 

Also, the flexibility of education can offer a differentiated treatment more efficient to students with different levels of initial knowledge or greater flexibility in the learning process. The elearning environment involves the use of software that combines a number of presentation and communication options (virtual classes accessible to both teachers and students) with learning articles (courses, exercise examples, tests) that the learners are studying at their own pace or within heterogeneous groups in terms of their initial level of knowledge. 

The key opportunity is to use ICT as a catalyst for innovation in education. Multiple applications, such as online forums, blogs, games, or online tests, are suited to the perspective of a learner-centered learning process that focuses on learning and less on teaching, and the teacher has an intermediary role, as a mentor of the trainee in his self-training activity.12

Aims of Educational Technology

Periathiruvadi and Rinn (2012) opined that educational technology has played a very vital as well as innovatory part in the educational system all over the world. According to them, it has enhanced and influenced the teaching and learning processes. The core goals of educational technology in education according to Sharma and Sharma (2006) are to:

1. Enhance the instructional process with the aid of educational technology thereby making it more effective and purposive.

2. Improve and preserve the standard of education which has been on the decline through the application of educational technology.

3. Make distance or correspondence education more effective with the use of educational technology.

4. Utilize Educational technology in resolving classroom teaching and training problems.

5. Help to understand the nature as well as structure of the teaching process.

6. Help in handling and solving the problem of individual differences in an effective manner in teaching-learning process.

7. Help in the formulation of theories for teaching and instruction.

Educational Technology and Instructional Technology

Although, the words educational technology and instructional technology are commonly interchangeably used, there is noteworthy distinction between them. Educational technology as a subject matter is broader than instructional technology. Educational technology can be viewed as the study and proper practice of aiding learning and improving performance through the creation, usage and management of appropriate technological processes and resources. They are procedures, materials, organisations, devices, ideas, machines or instruments that make the teaching and learning process further effective, impressive and successful (Periathiruvadi & Rinn, 2012). Sharma and Sharma (2006) pointed out that the word technology originates from the Greek word ‘Technic’ meaning art or skills and logia which means science or study. Hence, technology implies the study or science of a skill or an art. Educational technology is crucial in making teaching and learning processes further effective and successful (Periathiruvadi & Rinn, 2012). Educational technology can be viewed as making use of diverse techniques as well as processes to plan a learning experience methodically (Venkataia, 1996). Galbraith (1967) asserts that educational technology is the organised usability of scientific or other planned knowledge to hands-on tasks. Sharma and Sharma (2006) also define educational technology as the field of study that aids human learning by systematically identifying, organising, developing and utilising learning resources by managing procedures. They, however,said that educational technology is not only limited to these procedures but it also refers to the people who implement the process. Educational technology is broad and covering it as a single subject will be impossible. Consequently, it is, therefore, separated into four classifications i.e. instructional technology, teaching technology, management technology, instruction design and behavioural technology (Sharma & Sharma, 2006). Instruction is the method in which curriculum is learnt whereas instructional technologies are designed to have empirical and practical applications in the learningteaching process (Periathiruvadi & Rinn, 2012). The term educational technology is often linked with, and comprises, instructional theory and learning theory whereas instructional technology can be viewed as the theory as well as practice of design, development, use, management, and assessment of procedures and learning resources (Seels & Richey, 1994). Sharma & Sharma (2006) contend that instructional technology is applying sociological, scientific, as well as psychological knowledge, principles and rules in the instructional process so as to achieve learning objectives. It is the system, instruments, network devices, techniques and methods used to accomplish definite set of learning objectives. Instructional technology is part of educational technology. Seels & Richey (1994) view educational technology as being wider than instructional technology for the reason that the word “educational” denotes all the aspects of education whereas the word “instructional” is limited to teaching and learning issues (Isman, 2002; Smith & Regan, 2005).

ICT Integration to Support Students’ Learning

The use of information and communication technology in the delivery of vocational and technical education is absolutely pertinent in Nigeria so as to support superior forms of learning. No doubt that theory and research in learning provide an extremely important source of ideas and basis for designing environments conducive to learning. Generally, the key areas for information and communication technologies integration or application in vocational and technical education include Information and Communication Technology Mediated Learning, Access to information and Communication via the Internet/Intranet, Education Management Information System (EMIS) etc. Information and Communication Technology Mediated Learning (ICTML) covers Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) for vocational and technical teachers and the use of multimedia technologies for producing course materials and Computer Aided Learning (CAL) for their students. Computer assisted instructions have been in use elsewhere in developed countries especially at early years of learning. They provide ample opportunities for students to broaden their learning skills and for teachers to develop better multimedia and interactive courseware. Studies indicate that learning takes place through communication. This is generally poor in the classroom model. Classroom models are largely "one-way teaching models" in which the teacher plays the acting part whereas pupils and students are merely reacting. Computer assisted instructions can greatly complement traditional teaching techniques to help students to learn much more much faster. Internet and Intranet have become a source of vast amount of information and interactive tools. Intranet is a closed user-group Internet. An example of Intranet could be a school campus network where students and teachers share local information such as teaching materials and course schedules while at the same time accessing the Internet. The Internet is a set of linked computers characterized by protocols used across a widerange of hardware platforms. Each machine on the Internet contains information shared across the globe - (the content of Intranet is only available to a small closed community such as school-teachers and students). Information on the Internet could be accessible from any location regardless of the type of computer system being used. It also means one can have access to and/or publish information regardless of the subject, location, age, race and time limitation. Internet is thus an empowering tool for all that are involved in education. A wide array of techniques have been developed to access to information on the Internet ranging from logging onto a remote server, chatting over the Internet with colleagues on specific subjects, sharing information via mailing lists and user groups, file transfer protocol to get files on servers to the World Wide Web - an interactive multimedia based information access tool. The World Wide Web has now gained the momentum due to its ease of use and its multimedia capability. Education Management Information System (EMIS/or EDMIS) is a multi-user, interactive information system and a planning tool for storing and retrieving education information on students, student grades, test results, courses, personnel, finances at school, district or regional levels. Student information such as demographics and attendance, subject, program, and performance, staff information such as demographics, employment related data, classroom schedule, vocational education course taken by the staff and staff performance report could be gathered in a standard format and entered at school, district and national level to inform decision-making. The EMIS financial data include information on budgets, cash balances, expenditures, receipts, schedule of indebtedness and miscellaneous financial reports for higher level management and others such as building profile information. Although it has been in use elsewhere in developed world, EMIS use in developing countries is often limited to students’ affairs office in the Universities and offices of the Ministries of Education. Data on education planning is usually gathered using manual techniques and is often prone to errors and inconsistency. Multimedia and telematics can contribute in several ways to the development of various skills and attitudes in vocational and technical education. The use of them in the learning process can actually teach students how to access and productively use information which is presented in a new and very attractive way. Multimedia communications and information retrieval skills are highly necessary for the minimum level of business and professional communication. When working with multimedia and telematics applications, students are engaged in activities which develop higher order thinking skills such as problem solving, reflecting, recognising relationships, analysing and creatively synthesizing information, as they deal with complex, realistic information. These tools can give vocational and technical education students the experiences they need to be informed, intelligent decision-makers, producers and problem solving adult members of twenty-first century society. In addition to this, the open-ended, non-linear, constructivist model of learning is very compatible with use of multimedia and telematics software. In particular, multimedia or hypermedia authoring software enables constructivist learning experiences by allowing teachers and students to create interactive lessons, multimedia reports or presentations. Furthermore, through the process of discovery, or guided discovery, the student learns facts, concepts, and procedures, in other words they learn by exploring. These applications also facilitate important educational and cognitive processes, including presentation of complex, authentic tasks, engagement in active problem solving and critical thinking, utilisation and synthesis of knowledge from a variety of domains and others. Multimedia authoring tools are inherently meta-cognitive: they help students think about thinking. In addition to this, multimedia software provides a platform for interactive exploration, inquiry and creative application which is context-based. The context in which learning occurs (situated cognition), and the activities through it occurs have a direct and significant influence on what is learned. Another significant point is that interactive multimedia and telematics services manage to develop students’ interest in learning activities, at least for the time being. Moreover, it is not too surprising that they also increase their confidence in their abilities. In turn, this confidence of the students in themselves undoubtedly explains in part the spontaneously receptive attitude that a large number of them adopt in which technology plays a role and the perseverance that they show in accomplishing this activity. Among the reasons that contribute to student motivation there is the fact that these technologies can be as key vehicle for stimulating learning, primarily because they create environments and present content in ways that are more engaging and involve students more directly than do textbooks and more traditional teaching tools. They possess an interactive capacity and they allow vocational and technical students to take part in activities that invite them to create and share with others.

Stages of Teaching and Learning through ICT

Teaching and learning are best thought of, not as separate and independent activities, but rather as two sides of the same coin, interconnected and interrelated. Studies of teaching and learning in schools around the world identify four broad stages in the way that teachers and students learn about and gain confidence in the use of ICT. They are in terms of discovering, learning how, understanding how and when, and specializing in the use of ICT tools. The first stage is that teachers and learners go through in ICT development is of discovering ICT tools and their general functions and uses. In this discovery stage, there is usually an emphasis on ICT literacy and basic skills. This stage of discovering ICT tools is linked with the emerging approach in ICT development. Following the discovery of ICT tools comes the stage of learning how to use ICT tools, and beginning to make use of them in different disciplines. This stage involves the use of general or particular applications of ICT, and is linked with the applying approach in ICT development. The next stage is understanding how and when to use ICT tools to achieve a particular purpose, such as in completing a given project. This stage implies the ability to recognise situations where ICT will be helpful, choosing the most appropriate tools for a particular task, and using these tools in combination to solve real problems. This stage is linked with the infusing and transforming approaches in ICT development. The fourth and last stage involves specialising in the use of ICT tools such as occurs when one enters more deeply into the science that creates and supports ICT. In this stage students study ICT as a subject to become specialists. Such study concerns vocational or professional education rather than general education and is quite different from previous stages involving the use of ICT tools UNESCO, 2002).

The Imperatives of ICT for Vocational and Technical Students’ Learning

Information and communication technology (ICT) is an indispensable part of the contemporary world. The field of vocational and technical education has certainly been affected by the penetrating influence of information and communication technology worldwide and in particular developed countries, ICT has made an impact on the quality and quantity of teaching, learning, and research in the traditional and/or distance education institutions using it. In concrete terms, ICT enhances teaching and learning in vocational and technical through its dynamic, interactive, flexible, and engaging content. It provides real opportunities for individualised instruction. Furthermore, information and communication technology has the potential to accelerate, enrich, and deepen skills; to motivate and engage students in learning; to help relate school experiences to work practices; to help create economic viability for tomorrow’s workers; contributes to radical changes in school; to strengthen teaching, and to provide opportunities for connection between the school and the world. The pervasiveness of ICT has brought about rapid technological, social, political, and economic transformation, which has eventuated in a network society organised around ICT (Yusuf, 2005). Accordingly, the application of ICT makes institutions more efficient and productive, thereby engendering a variety of tools to enhance and facilitate vocational and technical teachers’ pedagogical activities. For instance, e-learning is becoming one of the most common means of using ICT to provide education to students both on and off campus by means of online teaching offered via web-based systems (Yusuf, 2005; Mutula, 2003). Thus, ICT-based technology like e-learning has great potential to supplement traditional learning. This is so because ICT enhanced learning can provide new opportunities to explore high-level cognitive activities such as autonomy, creativity, problem solving and team work while providing vocational and technical teachers with the means to take into account individual needs of their students, especially while using web-based technology. Accordingly, and in addition to some of the imperatives mentioned above, some of the definite and specific reasons for implementing ICT-based technology for vocational and technical teachers are:

1. New ICT facilities allow vocational and technical students and teachers to control, manipulate and contribute information to learning and teaching environments as interactive books, journals and the like are usually made available via Internet (Oxfam Education Report, 2002).

2. The use of new multimedia technologies and Internet will improve the quality of teaching-learning elated activities not only in Nigeria but Africa sub Saharan region as well.

3. As a social process it will facilitate interaction and collaboration not only among learners but among teachers as well both at local and/or global levels.

4. It will give opportunity to individuals who might wish to combine work and learning at his or her own pace, irrespective of location.

5. It enhances performance of vocational and technical lecturers in time of course materials delivery and provides maximum attention to their students as they could meet through email feedback facility or other wise.

6. It will revolutionize distance learning which used to be “just-in-class” to “just-in-time”, thus enhancing easy accessibility to education.

7. A flexible user interface, since it is attractive and interactive, may motivate the learner’s interest, which in turn will sustain continuous learning.

8. It promotes human resources capable of responding to the demands of the new world economy that is supported and driven by ICT.

9. Open and distance university education, if well supported by e-learning technology, will provide accessibility, flexibility, and collaborative work to both the urban and rural populace of Nigeria and Africa in general, who might not have the privilege to attend conventional universities. This has lifelong value to quality education and to all who seek knowledge irrespective of age and/or geographical location and time.

Therefore, with the evolution of the new Information and Communication Technology, higher education institutions are able to provide a flexible and more open learning environment for students and teachers alike. In Nigeria, indications are that with increasing enrollments at all levels of education, distance or blended learning shall continue to grow, which calls for immediate technology support (Kwache, 2007). Furthermore, the use of these technologies do not isolate vocational and technical students from one another, but instead increases the relations and promotes co-operation among students in the same class and among students or classes in different schools. By participating in scientific experiments or other projects conducted jointly with students in other schools, using powerful telecommunications networks, students learn how to co-operate in order to get a job done. Consequently, they not only acquire the standards inherent in cooperation, they also actually acquire them through real situations. Furthermore, in situations where two students work on one computer can prove very positive, because it contributes in particular to developing the ability for social interaction, it deemed indispensable for mastering certain intellectual skills and performing certain tasks. Thus, the use of ICT in the school system is likely to transform the current competitive social structure of the classroom into a more co-operative social structure. In cases in which these technologies are used correctly in the classroom they do produce positive results and they have the potential to transform the classroom into a better and less boring environment for learning. Of all areas in which change could occur, the time students concentrate on a learning activity heads the list. The attention span or concentration that the majority of students are willing to devote to learning activities is greater when they use a new technology than they are in a traditional setting using traditional resources. Because they like working with a computer, because they can progress at their own pace and because they receive immediate feedback on what they are doing, the students remain engaged and they are willing to devote more time and energy to a learning activity on a computer. Additionally, through these new offered technologies, vocational and technical teachers quickly obtain information on the availability and value of a very diverse selection of instructional resources, and also often benefit from support for their use. For example, a teacher can preview software to see if it is appropriate for vocational or technical students or establish contact, sometimes instantly and simultaneously, between his students and experts or other students located anywhere in the world. Similarly, through advanced telematics applications vocational and technical teachers can gain immediate access to classes sharing a common interest in a particular topic or to educational resources which can provide them with help and ideas. Furthermore, educational projects can supply the focus and boundaries for interaction and can provide teachers with content; accompanying materials, organizational help, and technical assistance they may need to work multimedia and telematics into their curriculum and lesson plans. Multimedia and telematics applications allow for a more individualised approach to learning. Much of the software lets vocational and technical students progress and learn at their own pace, and teachers become more like facilitators and coaches who tailor their assistance to the needs of the child. Part of the transfer of the information inherent in teaching is shifted from the teacher to the technological media as explained above, and the teacher has more time to support each student in the individual process of discovery and mastery of knowledge, skills and attitudes. In addition to this, when teachers use the computer to teach, they tend to work with small groups of students or individual students rather than with the class as a whole at a given time. This allows them to develop a much more accurate and realistic impression of what the students do and do not understand and to concentrate more on students who need help. In a context where new technologies play an important role, vocational and technical teachers begin to view knowledge less and less as a series of facts to be transferred and more and more as a process of continuous research in which they share the difficulties and results with their students. Successful computer-based learning technologies, such as multimedia and telematics, are a component of a larger pedagogical approach that warrants the use of technology. Viewing computer-based learning technologies as a tool or instrument implies that there exists a pedagogical approach which is well enough articulated so that the inputting, presentation, and communication facilities of the computer are realised as effective aids to student learning and performance. Just as teachers must be knowledgeable about the learning technologies they and their students are using, they must also be knowledgeable and experienced in the pedagogical approach to be taken in their classrooms. This would appear to be necessary if it is to determine how computer capabilities can be used to promote learning, and how to design computer-based learning environments (Turoff, 1995). ICT foster a positive, close association of students with the assessment of their own learning. Given the potential of these technologies, students’ work can easily take other forms than that of written text, or combine various forms, and can be transmitted at any time, virtually in an instant, to examiners in another location. These technologies also allow a student’s work to be reviewed as often as necessary, and allow the student as well as other people or authorised organizations to keep a copy. Furthermore, these technologies can be used to build libraries or multimedia centres that bring together examples of students’ work and instruments for interpretation. These locations may also have video editing and multimedia production equipment so teams of teachers can propose other approaches to assessment of student learning to their colleagues. Finally, these technologies make possible the dissemination over computer networks of the best assessment instruments prepared by vocational and technical teachers and the best work produced by students.

Technology Use and Skills

Over the last few decades there has been increased use of computing devices in educational institutions in developing countries (Deb, 2011; Trucano, Hawkins & Iglesias, 2012). The use of the web, computer, and mobile-based technologies has drawn a lot of interest among students, who use them for educational purposes as well as for social networking. This at least implies a degree of familiarity with these technologies and the skills for using those (Trucano et al., 2012). As mentioned above, in Pakistan, the students’ ability to use ICTs was significantly hindered by the low level of technology access (Hussain 2007). Many research studies identified correlations between positive computer experience and positive attitudes, competence and comfort with computers (Schumacher & Morahan-Martin, 2001; Papaioannou & Charalambous, 2011; Paris, 2004) and an inverse relationship between computer experience and computer anxiety (Busch, 1995; Olatoye, 2011). Other studies disagreed with these findings and claimed that computer experience did not play a significant role in reducing computer anxiety or developing positive computer attitudes (Felton, 2006; Pelgrum, 1993; Olatoye, 2009).

The Relevance Of ICT In The Teaching And Learning Of Vocational And Technical Studies

Bringing the Practical and the Theoretical Worlds Closer

The use of ICT is in many cases strengthening this integration. The present day teaching and learning in Technical/Vocational Education where the practical is being thought manually will be blended with the use of computer simulations and computer Aided Instructions (CAI) software. The two most prevalent ways of bridging theory and practice via ICT are the use of simulation and blended learning. ICT can be used to make difficult theoretical concepts easier to understand through the construction of models. In this way theory and practice become more compatible.

Enhancing the Level of Knowledge, Skills and Competences

The use of ICT Technical/Vocational Education will improve the students’ understanding and knowledge. The students are able to go deeper into the subject. They learn more because ICT involves the students more. Students who use ICT will generally obtain better results than traditional students.

Another impact is that students are learning to learn and acquire thinking skills. So through using ICT they are acquiring meta-cognitive skills.

Better Preparation for Working Life

Students are better prepared for their working life hence students are meeting the requirements of the labour market to a higher degree. ICT in Technical/Vocational Education means that students will be more efficient workers in relation to speed and quality.

Increased Quality of Teaching

The use of ICT is improving the quality of teaching and learning because it increases the range of potential methods. It improves teaching and learning. It opens a wide range of possibilities of teaching and learning in new ways – e.g. seeking information, collaborating with others, exchanging information.

Efficiency Might Increase

The use of ICT in teaching and learning in Technical/Vocational Education might increase efficiency. Because of the high cost of investment in the equipment and infrastructure needed, expectations concerning cost savings are frequently not being met significantly.

Realistic But Safe Student Assessment

The use of on-line testing could reduce the cost of student assessment. The use of ICT also has impacts on student assessment itself. The use of ICT provides an opportunity to test the students in a realistic but safe environment. The use of simulations for instance reduces the risk of accidents and minimises damage to the environment.

Increased Flexibility

Where blended learning is being used, flexibility is an impact because the blended approach offers students the opportunity to study at the workplace or at home, meaning that the students do not have to attend the institution physically. It also offers the student’s flexibility in relation to time, as teaching and learning are restricted to particular times either to a lesser extent or not at all. Blended learning is not as prevalent in Technical/Vocational Education in Nigeria as a whole as it is in Western world. However, types of flexibility other than flexibility in relation to time and space can be noted in those forms of Technical/Vocational Education in which blended learning is not being used. According to Harris (2002), "the flexibilization time-space accounted for by the integration of ICT into teaching and learning processes contributes to increase the interaction and reception of information.

Increased Motivation

Because ICT increases flexibility and makes students teaching and learning more interesting, as it brings it closer to reality, motivation is generally increased. The use of ICT in teaching Technical/Vocational Education courses makes it more interesting.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)

Comprehending the acceptance and use of information technology by individuals is a major aspect of information systems study (Benbasat & Barki 2007). Many theoretical models have been primarily developed from theories in sociology as well as psychology, engaged for explaining technology acceptance and use (Venkatesh, et al, 2003; Venkatesh, Thong, & Xu, 2012). A review and combination or blend of eight models/theories of the use of technology gave rise to the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT; Venkatesh et al. 2003).

One major emphasis of information systems research is the need to study individual acceptance and use of technology. This need has been widely addressed by using some theories from disciplines such as sociology and psychology to develop models that are used to explain technology acceptance and use (Venkatesh, Thong, & Xu, 2012). Consequently, the combination of eight of the theories / models which emerged over time on the use technology gave rise to the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) by (Venkatesh, Morris, Davis & Davis, 2003).

Venkatesh et al. (2003) combined the eight theories/models of technology use (i.e. user acceptance and motivation models and theories) to propose the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology. The following are the eight theories/models: (1) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT); (2) The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM); (3) The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA); (4) The Motivational Model (MM); (5) The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB); (6) The Model of PC Utilization (MPCU); (7) A combined theory of Planned Behaviour/Technology Acceptance Model (CTPB-TAM); and (8) Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT). As a result, UTAUT submits that four primary constructs directly determine technology acceptance (behavioural intention) and use (behaviour): they are: Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy, Social Influence, and Facilitating Conditions. The theory further submits that the effect of these four constructs is moderated by variables of age, gender, experience and voluntariness of use (four other variables).

UTAUT has been employed for intention-based models that used behavioural intention to predict technology usage (Taylor & Todd, 1995). It is used as the latest model for analysing intention to use new technology and the actual Use (Young, et al, 2014). When compared to prior usage intention (acceptance) models with all their extensions, Venkatesh, et al (2003) revealed that UTAUT explains 70 percent of individuals differences in the use intention of technology and this is more than every of the eight prior models as well as their extensions. According to Venkatesh, et al, (2012), UTAUT has advanced the essential factors and likelihoods that could predict behavioural intention to use a technology and technology usage.

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Mădălina, Alecxandrina, and Deaconu(2017), investigated the use of information and communication technology (ICT) as a teaching method in vocational education and training in tourism. The article explored the use of ICT tools in vocational education and training in tourism, proposing concrete ways to use new technologies in teaching-learning-evaluation of disciplines in the field of Tourism and Food. The research was carried out on a sample composed of high school students from Constanta County, Romania, and we used the psycho-pedagogical experiment as a research method. The results of the analysis confirmed the initial hypothesis that the use of ICT, as a teaching method in tourism classes, determines, among pupils, the formation and development of specific skills to a greater extent than the use of traditional methods.

Similar study was conducted by Minna-Eyovwunu, et al (2019), on ICT and Vocational and Technical Education in Tertiary Institution using College of Education Warri, Delta State, Nigeria as a case study.The study was carried out to evaluate the roles and challenges of ICT in vocational and technical education. Survey method was used in carrying out this research. Sample size of (110) respondents were collected by simple random sampling techniques. The data collected were analyzed with descriptive statistics: means, standard error of means, frequency and percentages. The study reveals gross inadequacy of facilities to support full application of information and communication technology (ICT), irregular power supply amongst others hinders the effective integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in vocational and technical education (VTE). It also determined various roles of ICTs in VTE, among which are that ICT helps in distance learning programme; also helps in making teaching and learning more interesting; etc. The findings showed a significant inadequate availability and usage of (ICT) facilities for teaching and learning. It was recommended among others that information and communication technology (ICT) equipment and facilities should be adequately made available in the tertiary institutions for effective teaching and learning in vocational and technical education.

In addition, Muhammad, Sukri, Saud et al(2016) evaluated the ICT application in vocational and technical education and training (VTET) institutions in Malaysia.The purpose of the study was to explore and describe the application of Information of Communication Technology (ICT) in classroom in vocational and technical education and training institution in Malaysia. The primary objective of this study was to study the application of ICT in vocational and technical schools in Malaysia. The study also explored the barriers preventing the application and adoption of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) in teaching and learning technical subjects in technical and vocational schools and in Malaysia. The study involved all instructors in technical and vocational schools in Malaysia. A survey was conducted to gather the data. The findings of the study showed that application of ICT was widely used in teaching and learning technical subjects at vocational and technical education and training institution in Malaysia. Two major barriers were identified: lack of time for preparing the teaching materials and lack of knowledge and skills for producing advanced ICT teaching materials. a National Center for Education Statistics (2000) study showed that 44% of teachers reported using technology for classroom instruction, 42% reported using computer applications, and 12% reported using practice drills in the classroom. The study also showed that 41% of teachers reported requiring students to do research using the Internet, 20% required students to use technology to solve problems and analyze data, 27% had students conduct research using CD-ROMs, 27% assigned students to produce multimedia reports/projects, 23% assigned graphical presentations of materials, 21% assigned demonstrations/simulations, and 7% assigned students to correspond with others over the Internet. Several scholars have discussed the barriers to the implementation of technology.Fabry and Higgs (1997) found that the major issues in the implementation and integration of technology in teaching and learning includes resistance to change to something new (teacher, student, and school), teachers' attitudes, training, time, access, and cost. Smerdon, Cronen, Lanahan, Anderson, Iannotti, and Angeles (2000) also found that the barriers to the use of the Internet and computers for instruction included lack of computers, lack of release time for teachers to learn how to use technology, and lack of time in the school schedule for student computer use.