THE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION TRAINING OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING
CHAPTER TWO
Review of Related Literature
This chapter deals with the review of opinions, suggestion, views of educationists and authors etc. as they relate to the topic under investigation.
2.1 Instructional Roles of Teachers of Vocational and Technical Education
In Nigerian University Education
One of the basic concerns of VTE is to bring about economic and technological development through adequate training of students of the program who would be able to acquire the skills, knowledge and values that are required in the world of work for effective performance. VTE also aims at tackling the problem of low level of Technical skill, which is responsible for low productivity and poverty in the developing countries like Nigeria. VTE may not achieve this objective unless the instructors are able to fulfill the role of effectively teaching the students (Okoro, 2005).
This role is possible if teachers of Vocational and Technical Education possess three basic qualities or characteristics;
1. Practical occupational skill in an occupational area.
2. Theoretical scientific and technological knowledge in their area of specialization.
3. Pedagogical knowledge and teaching skills necessary in classrooms, laboratory and workshop situations (Okoro, 2005: 5).
These characteristic traits advocate that the technology teacher should possess adequate and sufficient practical experience necessary for imparting the skills he possessed. However, there has been the difficulty of getting VTE teachers who possess all qualities of practical skills, pedagogical skills and industrial experience.
In case of this difficulty, Okoro (2005) suggests that VTE instructors who possess adequate practical skills and industrial experience but who lack the pedagogical expertise should be considered preferably.
Momoh (2008) noted that absence of adequate practical skills by VTE teachers would make nonsense of the whole training program.
Lack of practical skill will only boil down to mere possession of theoretical information by students without adequate practical skills to effectively engage in the occupational area for which the students received their training (Okoro, 2005; Wipawin, 2004).
Success will be achieved when the VTE teacher reaches out to society and interact with the needs of society based on the existing agenda in the institution (Schutter and Van der Sijde, 2000).
The use of ICT for instruction definitely reveals that the role of VTE teacher must change if he must achieve positive result in his educational practice and instructional delivery.
It is expected that he must engage actively in what is going on outside his institutions environment so as to communicate and impart knowledge with the newest and most appropriate delivery methods (Lorensten, 2004).
It is a wide overview that by so doing, the VTE teacher must have succeeded in changing the existing industrial but traditional cultures to becoming knowledge economics.
Hence, it behooves the thoughtful VTE teacher the role to use ICT devices to train students who can possess the ability to think clearly and creatively. By this achievement, the VTE teacher must have succeeded in producing students who can generate new ideas, invent new products, device new services and suggest quality improvement necessary for improved economy (Wipawin, 2004).
It is believed that when students acquire skills, they make themselves more productive, able to produce more output and income for a given amount of time and would commonly also make themselves more adaptable to changes (Asian Development Bank-ADB, 2004).
Without a workforce that is continuously acquiring new skills, it would be difficult to reap most of the returns from technological progress (Booth & Snower, 1996) as cited in ADB (2004).
More so, World Bank (2002) as cited in ADB (2004) noted that technological change has shifted demand toward higher skills in the labour force and that these new technologies are knowledge and skill intensive, thus there is a need to train people to work with these technologies (UNESDOC, 2001).
The projection is that if people become skillfully empowered, entrepreneurially oriented and creatively nurtured, these people could contribute to environmentally sound sustainable development through their occupations and other areas of their lives. The university environment must therefore, delineate the TVE teacher’s role from that of a lecturer to more of a guide, resulting in learning being more individualized and interactive process.
This changing role of the TVE teachers as noted by Singh, O’Donoghue and Worton (2005) should bear on the teaching style (methods), teaching technique, and motivation to facilitate web-based instruction.
2.2 The Importance of Vocational and Technical Education Courses at University Level
According to Dike (2005), Vocational Education and training “prepares learners for careers that are based in manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic and totally related to specific trade, occupation or vocation.”
Chaedar (2002) asserted that, it is an “education designed to develop occupational skills. Vocational and Technical Education gives individuals the skills to “live, learn and work as a productive citizen in a global society”.
Dike (2004), suggested manual training that involves general instruction in the use of hand tools was said to have developed initially in Scandinavia. However,
Vocational Education became popular in the elementary schools in the United States after 1880 and developed into courses in industrial training, bookkeeping, stenography, and allied commercial work in both public and private institutions.
As the Columbia Encyclopedia (2001) noted some of the early private trade schools in the United States include Cooper Union (1859) and Pratt Institute (1887), the Hampton Institute (1868) and Tuskegee Institute (1881). The agricultural high school (1888) of the University of Minnesota was the first regularly established public Vocational secondary school that introduced extensive public instruction in agriculture.
According to Chaedar (2002), the number of public and private Vocational schools has greatly increased in the United States since 1900. There was an impetus on Vocational Education during World War II (1939-1945) when the armed services had great need for technicians that the civilian world could not supply. There was a further upsurge on Vocational training from the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (the G. I. Bill of Rights), which allowed World War II veterans to receive tuition and subsistence during extended Vocational training. There was also the Manpower Development Training Act (1962), the Vocational Education Act (1963), and the Vocational Education Amendments (1968) and the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act (1984). These programs help to improve the nation’s workforce and ensure that Vocational training is available for economically (and physically) challenged youths. While Technical and Vocational Education has continued to thrive in many societies Nigeria has neglected this aspect of education. Consequently, the society lacks skilled technicians: bricklayers, carpenters, painters and auto mechanics; laboratory and pharmacy technicians, electrical/electronic technicians and skilled Vocational nurses, etc. The hospitals are no longer a place where people go to get their ailments treated, but a place they go and die. Tales abound of how people die during surgeries and out of minor ailments. And the half-baked roadside mechanics in the society cause more harm to vehicles when contracted to service vehicles, and because of poor training some of the commercial drivers have sent many people to their early death. The shabby performance of Nigeria’s house builders (mason/ bricklayers, etc) is no longer news. For that individuals with important projects now use competent technicians from neighboring countries. This is not to mention the havoc the poorly trained technicians have caused in the power sector. Nigeria’s spotty electricity supply is the greatest bottleneck to national development. And toiling all day in the field with knives, hoes, and shovels would not feed the nation’s 170 million people. Mechanized farming requires Technical skills that could be obtained in Technical and Vocational schools. Every facet of the economy has been affected by lack of skilled technicians. The financial sector lacks technicians to regulate the banks and to develop financial software to properly tackle the rising fraudulent activities in the banking sector. Without security development is impossible in a society; no nation can sustain its democracy if the citizens lack confidence in the police. The police violate the citizens’ human and civil rights and lack forensic laboratory and fingerprint technicians to conduct criminal investigations. And because of lack of tools to track down criminals there was a shameful episode recently in the society where the police paraded a goat and sheep as a thief. It is only in Nigeria that a human being could transform into an animal. And due to poor training military officers are known to beat up the citizens who challenge their powers; the case of Miss Uzoma Okere and some naval officers is a case in point the danger posed by environmental pollution and fake drugs is alarming; the less educated in the society lack the skill to manage AIDS, cancer and diabetes among other serious health problems. One wonders what the nation’s health minister and the 36 state health commissioners are doing to tackle these issues. Any person who still thinks that leadership is not a major cause.
2.3 Applying Curricular for Effective and Innovative Teaching and Learning of Vocational and Technical Education Courses
According to Awa (2008), most of the secondary schools that offer Vocational and Technical Education Programme do not have uniform course content. The course content for Business Education, Home Economics, Agricultural Education, for instance in the department of Vocational and Technical Education, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, is not the same as in University of Nigeria, Nsukka. This is applicable too to the Federal University of Technology, Yola and Adekunle Ajasin University Akungba-Akoko and host of others. This disparity in course content of Vocational and Technical education programme in secondary schools poses a great challenge for the standardization of the programmed. It is therefore, concluded that Vocational and Technical Education Programme in secondary schools has not attained the maximum level of performance of its potential role of national economic development. This is due to neglect by the Federal Government, outlook of the society and other variables that hinder its development and contribution to growth. The curriculum designers should harmonize the course content of Vocational and Technical Education programme in secondary schools and change the nomenclature of the degree offered from (B.Ed) to (B.Sc.Ed). This will go a long way to standardize the programme to make it more efficient and effective, and also entice the youth to enroll for the programme.
2.4 Creativity in Vocational and Technical Education courses
Every year, billions of naira are been spent for the importation of vehicle, food, agricultural implements, electronics even razor blades from Shangai-China, in fact, virtually everything. Meanwhile, the field of Vocational and Technical Education is not growing rapidly through Vocational and Technical Education reliable and accurate researches, the national master plan for Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) development in Nigeria in the 21st century.
(FGN 2000) stated that, good policies are on ground, particularly in the various national development plans but, these are never faithfully implemented. The main reason for this is the non-inclusion of plan implementation studies as a major component of project and programme proposal.
Similarly, Okogie (2007) rightly pointed out that, most of the Lecturers have refused to update their knowledge through quality research and going on sabbatical to meet current demand in the educational system. How can a Lecturer from Ambrose Ali University Ekpoma go for sabbatical in University of Benin? What will he learn from almost the same environment, nothing new? Again, I am surprised when Lecturers do Ph.D for almost 15 years. Even though, conducting
research in Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria is not taken seriously, the potential of research and its capability on Nigeria economic advancement is not well appreciated or organized as a Mean of eradicating poverty and actualizing vision 20:20:20.
Ukuma (2009) put it, Vocational and Technical Education research had suffered neglect and under-investment in the last 56 years. The dreams of Nigeria’s at independence in 1960 for a country that will free her citizens from all sort of scientific, technological, political and socio-economic bondage was yet to come true, Nigeria at 56 years after independence has nothing to show case in terms of Vocational and Technical Education development. We still imports vehicles spare parts, all our refineries are not operating or producing at normal capacity, inadequate electricity supply to mention but a few. The complexities that burden the successful and quality research conduction so as to re-engineer Vocational and Technical Education cannot be overemphasized. This has been the phenomenon that has affected the development of Nigeria. It is at this critical time that research in Vocational and Technical Education is important in Nigeria, various questions are being asked why government funds and international partner agencies continue to channel resources rounds after rounds on the entire Vocational and Technical Education programme and no reasonable result is coming out. The answer to this
question bothering the minds of many Nigerians is that, there is need to ensure that the investment made by Nigerian Government and partner agencies on Vocational and Technical Education research last forever and Nigeria becomes a developed state or nation and actualize vision 20:2020. It is pertinent to continue to advocate for the re-engineering of Vocational and Technical Education in order to achieve creativity among students and conduct research for Nigerian citizens to be self reliance.
Scheefer and Moss (2008) pointed out that, Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education have used funds or finances allocated for them to established Vocational and Technical Education programmes instead they used it to established other courses. Money or funds for research related activities are either controlled by some of the chief executive officers of the institutions and most of these permitted usually must have immediate application in the classroom. The role of secondary schools, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education and research institutions throughout 56 years have not made much significant contributions to Vocational and Technical Education which is aimed at preparing Nigeria citizens for acquisition of skills and techniques that could lead to self empowerment and employment in the global labour market. It is unfortunate that, in Nigeria, not all Universities and other tertiary institutions of learning of comparable standing have established Vocational and Technical Education courses or programmes. Research in Vocational and Technical Education if conducted would have generated new ideas, identify, interpret and organize these ideas of scholars from other fields that would lead to the improvement of practice in the Vocational and Technical Education for economic empowerment, job creation and to actualize vision 20:2020.
2.5 Conceptual clarification of University Education
According to Peretomode (2007), University is the facilitator, the bed rock, the power house and the driving force for the strong socio-economic, political, cultural, healthier and industrial development of a nation as higher education institutions are key mechanisms increasingly recognized as wealth and human capital producing industries. Only human capital can sustain growth (Kors, 2008). World Bank (2004) argued that University Education is fundamental to all developing countries if they are to prosper in a world economy where knowledge has become a vital area of advantage.
Ehiametalor (1988), the aims of higher education in Nigeria as outlined by the Federal Ministry of Education (2004) section 8 (59) are:
•Contribution to national development through high level manpower training.
•Development and inculcation of proper values for the survival of the individual and the society.
•Development of the intellectual capabilities of the individual to understand and appreciate their local and external environment.
•Acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills which will enable the individual to be self-reliant and useful member of the society.
•Promotion and encouragement of scholarship and community services.
•For national unity and the promotion of national and international understanding and interaction.
Section 8 (60) of the federal ministry of education also state that higher education in Nigeria should vigorously pursue these goals through:
•Teaching
•Research and development
•Knowledge generation and dissemination and international cooperation
•Dedicated services to the communities through extra-mural and consultancy services.
All these stated goals are closely related to quality education because as John Dewey rightly pointed out, every experience of man counts as education.
Nigeria has a teaming population of over 170 million people. A growing population necessitates some growth in University to accommodate the increasing number of students seeking a higher education degree, yet the potential of Nigerian University system to fulfill this responsibility is frequently thwarted by problems of finance, efficiency, equity and quality. This article is focused of the following sub headings:
•the Concept of Quality and Quality Assurance
•Variables acting as factors affecting the effective teaching and learning of Vocational and Technical Education Courses in Nigeria University
2.5.1 Conceptual Clarification of Quality
The concept of quality has attracted many definitions from several scholars. Kalusi, (2001) argued that quality is a complex concept and there is hardly any consensus.
Asiyai and Oghuvbu (2009) defined quality as a measure of how good or bad the products of higher education institutions in Nigeria are in terms of their academic performance and meeting established standards.
Article 11 of the World Declaration on Education, (2003) sees quality as a multi-dimensional concept which should encompass all the functions and activities in schools. High quality delivery is a prerequisite for effective productivity in education industry and hence quality education is an instrument for effecting national development.
According to Ekong (2006), quality builds knowledge, live skills, perspectives, attitudes and values. When quality education is delivered high enough to meet set standards, the products of education should be able to perform well in the world of work in real life situation. When quality is low, performance cannot meet the set standards. Hence one can say that the quality of education has declined below set standard.
2.5.2 Conceptual Clarification of Quality Assurance
Quality assurance is the process of maintaining standards in products and services through inspection or testing of samples (Ramson-Yusuf 2005). Okebukola, (2010:3) noted that quality assurance is an umbrella concept for a host of activities that are designed to improve the quality of inputs, process and outputs of higher education system.
In line with this Ayodele, (2007) contend that quality assurance entails the quality of available instructional materials for teaching, equipment, facilities, school environment, pupils, curriculum, quality of instructional delivery and quality of teachers.
Quality assurance is designed to prove and improve the quality of an institutions methods, educational products and outcomes (Oyebode, Oladipo and Adetome; 2008). Everyone has a role to play in ensuring quality assurance in education. One of the key building blocks of quality assurance in education is the development of minimum standards as in qualification of teachers, the quality of teaching in institutions, expected educational achievement of students and the development of a more rigorous management process for education so that the entire sector develop stronger operating policies, procedures which are well documented and adhered to. With time, this will develop into a total management system for higher education in line with what is practiced internationally.
Hence Akinpelu, (2000) argued that education without quality can even be more dangerous than no education, stressing that without quality, education has no value.
2.5.3 Variables acting as Factors Affecting the Effective Teaching and Learning of Vocational and Technical Education Courses in Nigerian Universities
Several factors pose as factors affecting the effective teaching and learning of Vocational and Technical Education Courses in Nigeria University in the 21st century. These factors are highlighted and discussed below:
Many Universities in Nigeria were unable to build lecture halls, students’ hostels, equip laboratories and workshops and payment of staff salaries, research grants, allowances and medical bills (Ivara and Mbanefo cited in Asiyai 2005). Even the FGN/ASUU Re-negotiation Committee (2009) realized as widely acknowledged that the key to the survival of Nigeria in the 21st century lies in the country’s ability to produce applied and theoretical knowledge in science, technology and humanities and hence the Renegotiation Committee arrived at a consensus on the need for a rational and scientific procedure for determining the funding requirements to begin the revitalizing the Nigerian university system. Despites all efforts made the Nigerian government have not showed enough commitment towards adequate funding University.
2.5.3.1 Inadequate teaching staff and poor quality of teaching staff
A big challenge to the attainment of quality University Education in Nigeria is the lack of academic staff.
Ajayi (2007) seems to concur with the above when he noted that good teachers are needed for good education which in turn is indispensable for social change, social transformation and national development. The importance of teachers cannot be over emphasized. Despite the importance of teachers in the attainment of good education, universities in Nigeria are short of Lecturers to adequately handle teaching and learning activities. The institutions because of inadequate funding are not able to employ additional Lecturers. The few available Lecturers are seriously over worked. Even in some universities in the country, because of shortage of Lecturers their programmes are not accredited by the accreditation agencies. Attainment of good quality in higher education requires teaching staff of adequate quantity and quality.
Bamiro, (2012) attributed the problem of de-intellectualization of the academia to low quality of staff of some universities in Nigeria. Where there is inadequate teaching staff and poor quality of Lecturers, the attainment of good quality in the university will be difficult.
2.5.3.2 Poor policy implementation
Poor policy implementation is a challenge to quality delivery in education. The poor quality delivery is responsible for the abysmal low performance of graduates of university in Nigeria in their world of work and the alarming incidence of examination malpractice.
Okoroma, (2001) noted that money the government votes for running the institution does not get to the institutions and the little that gets there is normally wasted by education managers. Additionally, in Nigerian university little attention is paid to teaching effectiveness of academic staff. The “publish or perish” syndrome which places more emphasis on research makes Lecturers to be more committed to research.
Akinmusuru, (2009) attributed the low quality of secondary schools graduates to little attention given to teaching effectiveness, stressing that institutional policies are not geared towards making students learning a priority.
2.5.3.3 Lack of resources
Quality education is dependent on the quality and quantity of human and material resources put in place in the university. The lack of infrastructures such as science laboratories, workshops, students’ hostels, libraries and electricity will affect the quality of education. For good quality delivery, these facilities must meet the minimum standard specified by the National Universities Commission (NUC).
The undesirable conditions of university in Nigeria have been worrisome to many scholars (Asiyai, 2005 and Odetunde 2004). Students of the university in
Nigeria are learning in dilapidated buildings which are poorly ventilated, illuminated, furnished and environmentally depressing and disabling situations.
Even many Lecturers share small offices. Worried about the poor quality of graduates of university in Nigeria, the national universities commission carried out a need assessment survey which was reported by Okebukola, (2005) and highlighted the following:
•only about 30% of Nigerian students’ population has adequate access to classrooms, workshop, lecture halls, laboratories and libraries.
•Deficient libraries in terms of currency and number of books, journals, and electronic support facilities.
•Inadequate academic calendar resulting from staff unions’ industrial action premised on low salary, wages/welfare and students strikes often time related to inadequate facilities.
•Lack of practical experience, often times resulting from deficient facilities. These factors above are all threats to quality attainment in higher education in Nigeria.
2.5.3.4 Lack of information communication technology facilities
Another Factor Affecting the Effective Teaching and Learning of Technical and Vocational Education courses in Nigeria is lack of information communication technology facilities in institutions of higher learning. As part of her education reform effort Nigerian government adopted information communication technologies in all levels of education since information communication technology integration in educational practices is meant to improve teaching and learning, enhance higher education research, enhance collaboration among peers and improve quality of education. Unfortunately, most universities in the country, there is acute short of computers, multi-media projectors, electronic white boards, and automation of lecture halls and Lecturers offices. Even majority of the institutions are not linked with functional internet connectivity.
As rightly noted by Onuma, (2007) information and communication technologies could be used to prepare lesson plan, collect data and analyze students’ achievement. Curriculum content could be enriched through search from the internet by teachers. Through such internet search, information and relevant school practices which are unknown to teachers and students and which cannot be found in textbooks, can easily be downloaded for use.
Information and communication technology in education has been continuously linked to higher efficiency, higher productivity and higher educational outcomes, including quality of cognitive, creative, and innovative thinking (Olatoye, 2011).
Despite the role of information communication technologies in enhancing teaching and learning, researches abound in support of lack of information communication technology tools in institutions of higher learning in the country (Asiyai, 2010).
2.5.3.5 Frequent labour disputes and closures of universities
A big factor affecting the effective teaching and learning of Vocational and Technical Education courses in Nigeria is the incessant Staff Union disputes and subsequent closures of the institutions. Closure of the institutions affects staff productivity and the realization of educational aim and objectives.
Asiyai (2005) provided a catalogue of strikes by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) and the Senior Staff Association of secondary schools (SSANU) within fourteen years. She revealed that they were too many strikes, some of which lasted up to six months.
Asiyai (2006) identified the variables inducing the frequent trade union disputes as poor conditions of service of staff, non implementation of ASUU/FGN or SSANU/FGN agreements, lack of autonomy and academic freedom and poor funding.
The universities in Nigeria closed down in July 2, 2013 as a result of failure of the federal government to implement the agreement reached with the academic staff union of universities since 2009, despite all assurances and memorandum of understanding between the two parties. The disruption of academic programmes of institutions of higher learning affects students learning outcomes, since Lecturers find it difficult to complete the course work. The frequent disputes and strike galore by University Staff and students leave students with little or no time to complete both their theoretical and practical work. In most cases a semester’s course work is sandwiched to few weeks during which lectures are rushed to accommodate the time lost to strike.
This type of academic rush is a big threat to attainment of quality in higher education in Nigeria.
Adeboye, (2003) in his study noted that the higher the level of crisis, disruptions and hostility, the lower the level of productivity, standard and quality of the products of the system.
2.5.3.6 Lack of vibrant staff development programmes
Most universities in Nigeria lack staff development programme for training and re-training of staff. Vibrant staff development programme on a continuous basis will help academics and non-academics to clarify and modify their behaviour, attitude, value, skills and competencies. In this way, they grow and develop in their knowledge and thus become more effective and efficient in the performance of tasks. Staff development is paramount because knowledge of today is only sufficient for today. In this era of knowledge explosion and emergent knowledge based economy, staff development should be the priority of any nation.
Peretomode, (2008) argued that the weakness of post graduate programmes of some universities in Nigeria required a strong staff development programme for staff. He maintained that universities are staffed by Lecturers who are not familiar with the topography of educational landscape and have never been expected to formulate their own philosophies of education or their own views about teaching and learning.
Peretomode and Chukwuma (2007) in their study revealed that a significant relationship existed between manpower development and Lecturers productivity.
In addition, Asiyai and Oghuvbu (2009) reported that lack of staff development programmes accounted for the decline in quality of university education in Nigeria.
Similarly, Adeogun, (2006) noted that an employee who is not trained and exposed to continuous retraining in the modern methods and new discoveries in his or her field will soon become irrelevant to the organization. Due to lack of opportunity for retraining and none mentoring of junior Lecturers by professors, the junior Lecturers are not exposed to new ideas, facts, theories and research findings in higher education.
Various scholars have reported the deficiency of Teacher Education Programme in Nigeria (Okeke, 2001; Falayayo, 2004; Ajayi, 2007). This calls for addition training of teachers if quality in university education is to be attained in the country.