THE INFLUENCE OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING SERVICES ON CAREER CHOICE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literatures that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.
2.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Guidance And Counseling
The terms “guidance” and “counseling” have been used either individually or synonymously by various scholars. As a result, many text interchangeably used the term guidance for counseling and counseling for guidance the general consensus among the specialists is that guidance is a family name for all the helping services within the general educational and community services. Guidance is common language involves personal help given by someone; it is designed to assist a person to decide where he wants to go; what he wants to do, or how he can best accomplish his purpose; it assist him to solve problems that arise in his life. Stone, (1981) saw guidance as the process of helping in individual, himself and his world. Oladele (1987) also sw guidance s aiming and aiding recipient to grow in his independence and ability to be responsible for him. Counseling on the other hand, has been defined by Makinde (1987) as a services designed to help an individual analyze himself by something missing capabilities achievements, interest and mode of adjustment towards what new decision he has made or taken.
Ipaye (1983) saw counseling as a method of helping the individual utilize his or her psychological resources by focusing on that individual positive strength for development and by concentrating on the individual personality behavior and emotional asset that could be mobilize.
The Need for Guidance and Counseling in Schools
In many countries of the world, delivers circumstances prompted the establishment of guidance and counseling in secondary schools. These factors are as follows:
i. Growing needs of youth in this country
According to Bamgbaiye (2000), the curriculum of our secondary schools should be built around the development stage of the youths. Learning takes place if geared towards the cognitive development stages of individual children. This however, includes the sensory motor, pre-operational concrete operational and formal operational stages. Each stage has its own characteristics set of learning outcomes. Thus, there is need to plan, coordinate guidance-oriented curriculum to meet the needs of individual pupils/students. This can be done in the 6-3-3-4 system of education.
Counselling Services-Types and Programmes
In the findings of the research study conducted by Bolu-Steve, et al., (2017), two major types of counselling were identified, they are individual counselling (face to face interaction between the professional counsellor and the client) and group counselling (this between the professional counsellor and clients who have similar concern). Other counselling services/ programmes in schools include:
1. Orientation Service: This entails acquainting new students with the academic environment. The school is usually new to the students. An orientation activity helps the students to adjust to the new environment. At this point, students are exposed to the rules and regulation guiding behavior and interpersonal relationship within the school
2. Placement Service: This involves placing students in an appropriate class or school, courses, training or vocations. The counselor assist the students to choose the right subject combination in line with their traits. This process is useful in carrying out the placement of these students into science, arts, commercial or technical class. The placement programmes also assist the graduating students to choose the right course at the University.
3. Counselling Service: This is a face to face interaction between the counsellor and the client who has a challenge. Counselling in schools is aimed at assisting the students to live a more productive life and self-satisfying life style. The main focus of the school counselor is to facilitate needed educational growth among the students
4. Information Service: The school guidance counsellor provides the students with accurate information on educational, vocational and personal social opportunities facts that are available in order to assist the students in making informed decision and choices.
5. Appraisal Service: The appraisal of an individual is the value judgment arrived at, based on the result of the assessment of various relevant characteristics of the person. It involves the collection of data, analysis of subjective and objective personal and psychological data about a student. This gives a full understanding of these students and how they can be helped.
6. Follow-up Service: It consists of activities which helps the counsellor to access if the client is coping after the counselling session. This could involve visit to other places like institutions and employment establishment. Follow up services is necessary for planning and evaluation purpose.
7. Evaluation Service: This helps in assessing the effectiveness of the school counselling programmes. Data gathered from the evaluation process, enable the counsellor to improve, modify or suspend any service in the programme.
8. Referral Service: This is the transferring a client to another professional counsellor or agency where their problem can be appropriately handled. These services are the fundamental basis of counselling programmes.
All these services aimed at improving the academic standard of secondary school students.
The Importance of Guidance and Counselling Services in Schools
The aims of guidance and counseling service in schools is to assist the student in fulfilling his / her basic physiological needs, understanding themselves and developing associations with peers, balancing between permissiveness and controls in the school setting, realizing successful achievement, and providing opportunities to gain independence (Ebizie, et al., 2016).The importance of these services are presented by Bolu-Steve, et al., (2017) as
1. Development of students’ potentials: It aids in planning effective study habit which in turn, enhances students’ academic competencies.
2. To help students with developing problems: Counselling services are intervention process that are effective in dealing with student academic problems and at the same time foster healthy heterosexual relationship among the students.
3. Decision Making: To help students make informed decision about their education. Individuals have to know the choices that are available in subjects, curricula, schools or colleges to determine what exactly they want to pursue. They have to know subject combinations or options, what the subject involves in the classroom, available courses and what are the future prospects of following a particular course, available schools and colleges that offer the desired programmes, admission requirements and educational opportunities.
4. Development of the School's Curriculum: The professional Counsellors, provide data that serve as a basis for curriculum development, and they can help curriculum developers shape courses of study that more accurately reflect the needs of students. Too often, counsellors are not included in curriculum development efforts.
5. Offer of Technical Services: A guidance counsellor is qualified to assist teachers with selecting, administering, and interpreting tests; selecting and using cumulative, anecdotal, and other types of records; providing help and suggestions relative to counselling techniques, which teachers can use in counselling their students; and providing leadership in developing and conducting professional development of teachers in guidance functions.
CAREER CHOICE
According to Arnold (1997:21), a career is a sequence of employment related positions, roles, actions and experiences. A career defines how one sees oneself in the context of one’s social environment, in terms of one’s future plans, one’s past accomplishments or failures and one’s present competences and attributes (Raynor & Entin, 1982:262). UNESCO (2002:4) defined a career as the interaction of work roles and other life roles over a person’s lifespan including both paid and unpaid work. Career is also seen as the progress and actions taken by a person throughout a lifetime, especially related to that person’s occupations (Oloasebikan & Olusakin, 2014:44). In this study, the term “career” refers to any type of professional engagement students pursue whether paid or unpaid.
Career choice is a preferred choice of a course taken by a student which culminates to a specific career. A comparative lack of interest in a career can affect students‟ interest or commitment to a course and influence their academic performance. Chou, M. H. & Lee, L.C. (2007) assert that male students‟ motivation to undertake nursing could be due to the recommendation of family members and friends, high availability of work and job security, rather than an interest in nursing as a profession. A likely explanation for this late contemplation among male university students could be that a course they are pursuing will not lead to a career of their choice. The development of nursing professional identity is related to people‟s perception of themselves in the context of nursing practice. Not having a strong professional identity may have a negative impact on motivation to do well in nursing and other studies. The negative attitude towards learning could result in learners performing poorly, preventing them from obtaining required results. Indicators such as career preference also affect lecture attendance and this determines whether learners perform well academically or not and remedial measures could be implemented before it is too late. Chou, M. H. & Lee, L.C. (2007) advances the position that the most important reason a person chooses a particular career is that the person has intrinsic interest in the field. A good match between students‟ learning preferences and instructor‟s teaching style has been demonstrated to have positive effects on students‟ performance. Where instruction is not geared according to the learners‟ learning preference little can be achieved in a learning situation and this culminates in poor academic performance. argue that scholars who promote the learners‟ preferences approach to learning, agree that effective instruction can only be undertaken if the learners‟ learning preferences are diagnosed and the instruction is tailored accordingly. The literature review supports the idea that where there is no interest in a career such as nursing among male university students, no amount of training motivation or gratification could significantly increase the students desire to study. It is also evident that it is important for students to attend their lectures if they have to perform well in their academic performance. However students may not attend lectures especially where they have a negative attitude towards the course.
Every individual in this planet aspire for good quality life and appreciable social status. The only determinant of these is a good choice of career. Weijer and Meijer (1996) in Adesina (2005) see career as the totality of man’s experience in the world of work and education. Making a career involves an individual utilizing information and knowledge about self, world of work and opportunity in his or her society to make career decisions. Career selection is one of the most important choices students make, Undoubtedly, this decision will influence their activities throughout their lives. Career development is enhanced by appreciating the fact that a person’s current vocational status was as a result of previous experience which when correlated may suggest the ideal future. The connection between present experience and dream of the future enables individuals to prepare to meet challenges of tomorrow. Choosing a career/occupation rests on a process of individuation that constitutes a vocational identity by unifying one’s interest, needs, abilities and values (Walsh, 2003). Salami & Salami (2013) opined that secondary school students are always concerned about their future as regards to job availability and occupational mobility. They further explained that to achieve future success, young people are to make good plans today for the anticipated future. Oyamo and Amoth (2008) listed some factors that affect career choices. This included motivation, the family and peer-group pressure. Durosaro and Nuhu (2012) noted that most undergraduates have problems in the course of their studies due to the absence of guidance in their choice of subject combinations. This initial mistake may rear its ugly head during search for jobs which may lead such students to doing jobs that negates their interests and aptitudes. Other factors that affect career choices as highlighted by Natalie (2006) are life context, personal abilities, natural propensity and academic achievement.
Watson, McMahan, Foxcoft & Els (2010) stated that a good number of boys have strong desire for investigative type vocation while girls aspire for social oriented type of occupations. Individuals who fail to develop convictions rooted in social interest pursue career plans that focus on power, possessions, and prestige. Rather than intrinsic goals, they pursue extrinsic signs of success. In so doing, they can achieve success, and even admiration from others, but the cost is the inner satisfaction one feels from sharing one’s talents so as to enrich the community (Walsh, 2003). According to Faleye and Adams (2008), schools encourage students to combine subjects that they identify to be in line with their abilities, aptitudes and interest. Bojuwoye and Mbanjwa (2006) added that students who come from institutions that lack infrastructural facilities are adversely influenced due to lack of career information, resources and inadequate career counselling services. In his study of the systematic process influencing educational change in Izulu Medium School in South Africa, Ngesi (2003) found that poor economic background of undergraduates from remote areas negatively influence their abilities to choose the right course. These students wave off courses that are expensive to run and have longer years of study. According to Maree (2009) “many learners passed through secondary school and they find it difficult to be admitted for into universities or other tertiary institution due to not receiving counselling and guidance on good subject combination while in senior secondary school. Sal
ami (1999) found that lack of knowledge, inexperience, peer influence , parents and teachers’ advice, fame associated with certain jobs without and lucrative nature of some profession were the major factors that influenced students’ choice of career.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT CAREER CHOICE
Environment
Jude J. Obiunu 5, No. 2 (2013) stated “This environmental factor is made up of some variables which include peer groups, role models, mentors, social groups, socio-economic status, and type of family which determines the nature of career choice of secondary school adolescents. Environment is the complex physical factors that make up our surrounding and in turn act upon us” (Furstenberg &. Hughes, 1995). The environment of home affects the educational performance of students. He believed that environment is the external force which can affect the school performance of student. Author(s): Kong SAR) states that the factors influencing the choice of career in schools students including parents, family roles and counselor are the key words which affect the career selection of the students. M.S. Farooq1, A.H. Chaudhry (December, 2011, ) explores another factors influencing the choice of career among secondary school students in term of quality of performance, socioeconomic, and academic achievement which usually affect the choice of career in this modern era .The characteristics and the environment of the individual play a tremendous role in one’s academic achievement. The school teacher, counselor, parents and communities give personal, economic and social support to students in education field. Such kind of social aid has an essential role for the achievement of student’s career at school. The societal construction of parents’ participation in their child’s education career improves of academic accomplishment of their youngster. Well educated parents can create conducive an environment that suits best for academic achievement of their children. The school counselor gives counseling and guidance to the students for creating positive environment for development in students’ quality of effort in the same way M.S. Farooq1, A.H. Chaudhry1 (December, 2011) States that the academic performance of the students deeply depends up on the home involvement in their school activities in order to get the higher level of quality in academic accomplishment.
Family:
many of the students keep the foot path of parents it can also be observed that parents of one’s running a small businesses may students change the direction move towards their parents’ footsteps similarly learners might think that it will be the opportunity for themto avail it during school and it will be small support later they may be influenced that he may select it as career of life, because there is possibility they may get good position within the trade and it may be last decision of the students to operate the business of his parents. Dr. Maxwell. D.Eremia 4; November. 2014 This factor has negative and positive impacts on the students and learner goes through in the pathway of parents. Sometimes parents do not see the interest of child they often ignore them in choosing subjects selection in school. Interest of any individual in making career choice is an important trait and helps one making career selection of human life and interest of any individual is very essential for success. In the same, having career interest often plays a great role in choosing career decision. Even peer group and their influence on student’s selection of career. Career, according to Cambridge Advance Learners’ Dictionary (2005) Refers to “job or series of jobs that one does it during his/hers working life”. Thus, choosing a career simply means one is choosing a life job Salami Olufunmilaryo .,( 18.June.2013)explained that students do not have clear planning regarding their careerwhen a parent pressurizes on the student to select any field that student is compelled to follow the advice of his father because there is no current planning in the mind of students as a result he has to do what parents assign. At least students should be thinking for their career planning in secondary school and should have information to do something at a time.
M.S. Farooq1, A.H. Chaudhry1Characteristics of personality and abilities of an individual are supposed to be fully explained before an individual can be judged to be qualified to move towards a specific Career (Onayase and Onayase, 2009).
In this study, influence of environment is being focused on the choice of career among secondary school students.
Olatunji, (2003) claims that they have three types of environmental viz: The Social Environment refers to all special impacts on interaction of an individual within the process of his living in the natural environment. A research conducted by Olatunji (2003) indicates that the social environment has functioned since it looks into social impressions such as the family, parents, friends, religion, education, and even political group. Therefore, it is little bite suitable to carry out the research in light . Olatunji’s (2003 look at how the family, peer group, society and school environment influencing the choice of career among secondary school students the researcher agree the opinion of Olatunji these factors have a huge influence on the career of the students because the factors are the part of basic socialization that may affect an individual in choice of career among secondary school students. Career choice of individual is also determined by significance of others social support from friends. In a study interaction of young adults with the context of family members, teachers’ school counselors and community learn about exploration of careers which ultimately direct to one’s career choice.
Parents
It is considered that there is a huge involvement of parents in the career selection in secondary school students. . Also influence of parents is known as a determining factor in students ‘choice of career in decision-making. These influences might be positive or negative on their decisions Dr. Maxwell. D.Eremia( 4; November. 2014 )Some of the parents often do not see the personal interest of their child .The findings in this research leads that students, own ambitions are influenced by their parent’s aspirations or expectations. The support and encouragement of parents, friends and counselor are important factors that have been examined influence of choice)The effect of the environment on the choice of career among secondary school students in Ijebu Ode will therefore be studied in the context of Olatunji’s (2003). An individual might choose what would be desire of their parents simply to follow up them (Kochung Edwards) studies in Kenya mentioned that the students who belong to rural area to seek choice of career from their parents more than city students and those parents more than teachers and counselor play a major role in the career choice of students. Generally, the selection of a career is influenced by parents, friends, and counselors; however other environmental factors occur from one population to the other. Environment, personality and emerge trend will determine the choices of career among secondary school students. They usually explore these variables affecting the career selection, personality, emerge trend and environment influencing the choice of career students need to move right direction on the right time. The most influencing factor is the environment which may affect the career choice of students. Let suppose, students who lived a rural area choosing the career dealing with his/her family friends and teachers and follow up the teacher direction because he does not aware true selection of career so he will do the planning according to their environment.. Educational background of parents may influence student way of thinking on whether or not to proceed the education career. Someone may watch on television that may influence the student, or parents may have demanded that they assume a family business.
Personality
(Capraro, M R., & Wiggins, 2000). Personality is one of many tremendous factors in career choice. Studies had shown that student chooses a career that they think that it will be fit for their personality type (Mihyeon, 2009).The confidence of the students fully shows them how far one goes with their education career. Students, who believe in themselves, have great confidence and surely they select what they feel more comfortable. Jude J. Obiunu 5, No. 2 (2013) said “Personality is a characteristic way of thinking, feeling and behaving”. The personality can also play an essential role especially for the students in choosing career. As for as studies concerned that students, who have a great personality are more likely to major in different fields. Students with creative personality would select science fields. Students who have interest in social field are usually likely to move in the social sciences (Porter and Umbach, 2006). As before mentioned that the students have seen themselves play a role in which personality is a defining factor may influence the choice of career secondary school students. Some careers demand that one may have the personality to match the qualities of the profession let suppose; sales people have to be out- going. Michael Borchert( December, 2002 )personality plays an important role in the career selection at the right time have right career The type of personality of students must be committed, as to find out the career possibilities from early on in their lives. Students should be sincere to the study make a well planned decision the role grades play in off-putting opportunities for the bright future. Splaver wanted to say “It is important for you to have a good understanding of yourself, your personality, if you are to make Intelligent career plans .
Awareness
Michael Borchert( December, 2002 ) it is very essential for the upcoming students to be fully aware about understanding themselves, their personality, if they are in the known to make intelligent career plans. What they want to be in future, and what students like to determine factors in their career. The personality is to be considered include their mental abilities, special capability, and interests. Splaver (1977,p.13)considered aspects of mental capability to be “verbal comprehension, effective communication, spatial ability, numerical ability, reasoning ability, and memory.”Splaver in the connection of ability to personal experience and self-interest may lead to the right careers selection due to her reasoning. She urged students to become familiar with their personality in order to guide their career choice. A personality goes through self-assessment; self-motivation and self-evaluation career plan others, another trait that depended heavily on personality, according to Harris and Jones (1997). Self-knowledge is directed to be a domain with several ways (Anderson, 1995). In this domain, self-knowledge is the first and foremost central proficiency areas stated in the National Career Development Guideline (National Commission Site, 1989). There are many examples to modify the process of self-knowledge. Critical thinking on the life experiences to enhance their self-knowledge. Other example students are using problem-based learning to gain insight into self-knowledge (Lankard/Brown, 1996a). Self -knowledge is very important in career development. , itseems that the big problem facing adolescent students in Turbat secondary schools is that of choosing an right and related choice of subjects in school taking admission into higher institutions and finding a satisfactory job after university education. This is one of the first and main challenges facing by young people.
Economy
It is common knowledge that economy is such a factor that can have a huge influence on the learning of student career. lack of economy gives negative impacts on career of the students that he will unable to take admission his own interested field as a result he will be compelled to select such kind of subject that he does have interest. For instance, one has interest in math but this subject is not being taught proper manner or college does not have this field so for, then poor students do not afford to go another college definitely he will take another subject his academic performance will not be satisfactory at all.(Garzon, 2006; Kahlenberg, 2006; Kirkup, 2008). Stated that the attainment of students was negatively connected with the low socioeconomic status level of family members because they are unable to reach the sources and resources of learning materials (Duke, 2000; Eamon, 2005; Lopez, 1995).it is true that the low level socioeconomic status terribly puts negative impact on students career (Sander, 2001). This negative impact is mostly noticeable at the post-secondary level (Trusty, 2000). It is also commonly noticed that the lack of economy parents are not fully able to afford the cost of education at higher levels of their students and as a result they will not be able enough to work at the complete potential (Rouse & Barrow, 2006). The Socioeconomic statues (SES) can be known different king of pathways; it is usually believed that education of the parents job, profits and facilities use by one individually or jointly. Family education and parents’ socioeconomic status level should be having good relationship with the student’s academic achievement (Caldas & Bankston, 1997; Jeynes, 2002; Parelius, D., & Parelius, A. On the other hand the high level of economy can have positive effect on career of the students that one can be mentally and physically on their journey as Mr mentioned in1987; Mitchell & Collom, 2001; Ma & Klinger, 2000). The students get better perform by high level of Socioeconomic status than the middle class students and also the middle classperformance of students are better than with the st low level of students
Opportunity
Is also a factor that has formed the career selection of Students. Opportunity may influence perception of the students on their future planning terms of the reasonable probability of a future in particular career fields.
Guidance and counseling program is one of the most essential elements educational institutions of the activities. The wide range of behavioral problems in schools has enlarged its energy. However, one of the greatest challenges facing guidance and counseling services lacks of experiential research on career development and hence lack of implementation of sound policies (Skorikov, 2007). Guidance and counseling is an vital part of schooling and a lot of importance should be placed on its implementation to ensure that its objectives are realised.(Makinde, 1984).
Vocational guidance is also the element of the guidance and counseling program, which focused on participation and in occupations of economic and social values.
(Makinde, 1984). Career guidance activities should focus on career education, career awareness, career planning, and placement.
Sifuna (1990) names lack of employment and poverty is a big challenge to the system of education
Kenya. He mentioned that is one of the factors leading to the introduction of system of education. The objectives of the system were to enable students from all journey of education. Makinde (1984), stated out that guidance and
Counseling should be focused on educational, vocational, and career planning skills, among other things. Luzzo, James & Luna (1996), found that students who received counseling properly bring significant changes in their career beliefs and career behaviors. Therefore, counseling leads to understanding of one’s personality and the world of choice of career. Cavanagh, 2002).The aims of the career selection of explanation that student having less expectation to the counselors about options for advancing their careers to the bright future. Weiler, 1977, p. viii). Students should sincerely examine the best opportunities lie and which can provide good advantage to the students. Super (Super, 1957) illustrated shockingly that intelligence has a little to have entry-level positions; rather, adulthood, as in somatic size and manner, is valued more by the employer than intelligence. An academic background that closely
meets the desired qualifications for a job is a critical factor. Joann Deml, career advisor for the University of Wisconsin-Stout and Lia Reich. Deml stated that students should be fully aware how to sell themselves, a valuable asset to getting in the door. Awareness may show a positive result of these types of career experiences, which should be included in a good planning to insure career choice success.For the small opportunity student must not be satisfied and also see long term opportunity it will be much better for them, exploration could be adopted as a lifelong strategy throughout one’s life (J. Deml& L. Reich, personal communication, June 18, 2000). Stated that the parents have a long influence on the career of the students. It shows that parents have had awareness on opportunities and paybacks in the military (Maze, 2002. In this d Super (1957), Salami (2000) and Ogunsanwo (2000) contended that there no a clear way for a young person to make an appropriate decision,it is so essential for one to get the correct career selection living in a happy life and the relevant educational preparation for it. Buabeng, et al (2012) studied female high school students have interest in physics as course of study at the University level in Ghana, concluded that female students do not like better physics as a course of study at the University level due to the employment opportunities for females that they selected in the field physics . Choice of career every Individual should know the interest in making career selection which is the central in trait and factor theory of career decision making. In every aspect of human life, interest is very essential for any student of success. In other words, career interest is defined as first choice for specific life events that often play a major role in career decision making and choice. Basically, there are three types of career interests are notable first interests is that is verbally reported by the student. “I would like to work as medical doctor”. Manifest interests refer to the events in which individuals engage. For example students who enjoy writing may show his or her interest in writing. Besides other factors, socioeconomic status is one of the most discussable and debatable factor among educational professionals that give towards the school presentation of students. The most common disagreement is that the socioeconomic status of students affects the excellence of their college performance.
Family Influence On Career Choices
Research on family influence has increased rapidly during the last couple of years, yet an understanding of family influences on career choices still remains sparse. Much of the research on family influence focus on individual parents’ careers, for instance, mothers or fathers influencing children to take up a certain career. This research considers family members’ influence on career choices which includes parents, siblings and extended family members.
The first interactions of a child with people takes place within its home among members of its family who include parents, siblings and relatives (Bollu-steve & Sanni, 2013:92). A child is affected by a number of family-related factors such as the marital relationship of the parents, the socio-economic status of the family, the atmosphere of the home (whether parents are warm or hostile), the environmental condition, occupational status of the parents and the number of siblings in the family (Bollu-steve & Sanni, 2013:92). The family dynamics therefore play a pivotal role in the career readiness of the students.
Several studies bear testimony that parental involvement influences high school students’ career choices, for example, in Romania (Marinas, Igret, Marinas & Prioteasa, 2016:276), in Pakistan (Baloch & Shah, 2014:546; Saleem, Hanan, Saleem & Shamshed, 2014:841; Abbasi
& Sarwat, 2014:811), in America (Bates, 2015:69; Walaba & Kiboss, 2013:12), in Albania
(Uka, 2015:212), in the Philipines, (Aguado, Laguado & Deligero, 2015:237), in Kenya
(Obwoge & Kibor, 2016:478; Egunjobi, Sasilu & Ogunkeye, 2013:301), in Nigeria
(Ogunyewo, Afemikhe, Ajio & Olanlesi-alui, 2015:28; Ezeweani & Atomatofa, 2012:79), in
Tanzania (Amani, 2016:79) and in South Africa (Fatoki, 2014:671; Mutekwe, Modiba, Maphosa, 2011:140) studies revealed that parents influence the choice of careers among high school students.
In America, Hairstone (2000:2) purported that the career process of young people can be compared to rocks in a rock polisher. All kinds of people grind away at them but parents are the big rocks in the tumbler. Other American studies also reveal that, even if schools had the resources with which to meet young people’s career needs, neither teachers nor counsellors can replace the influence parents have on their children (Taylor, Harris & Taylor, 2004:1; Hairstone, 2000:2). Besides parents, other American family members are viewed as influential in their children’s career choices (Tillman, 2015:23; Griffin, Hutchins & Meese, 2011:177; Ojeda & Flores, 2008:91; Domene, Shapka & Keating, 2006:154). Similarly, Kracke (2002:20) revealed that German families influence students’ career choices. All these studies were carried out in completely different environments from the current study.
Parents influence career choices in a number of ways, for example, parental support and encouragement. A study carried in Kenya reflects that when adolescents require information on topics such as career planning, they consult their parents (Edwards & Quinter, 2011:82). Although the study was similar to the current study in terms of focus and objectives, the study used a qualitative approach which limits the objectivity and generalisability of results. Another study in Kenya also examined the influence of parental support in their children’s careers(Korrir & Wafula, 2012:87).
A study was conducted to investigate the influence of family background on the academic performance of secondary school students in Nigeria. It was found that supportive parents are important for their children’s career decision making and for the success of their careers (Barker, 2010:6; Clutter, 2010:13). Bollu-steve and Sanni (2013:92) established that Nigerian parents influenced students’ performance and eventual career choices. Despite the differences in the aims of these studies, they acknowledged the importance of parental support of their children’s education and career choices.
African studies, for example, in Kenya (Mokoro, Wambiya & Aloka, 2014:1465) and in Nigeria (Abiyo & Eze, 2015:26; Abiola, 2014:231), have highlighted that many of the settings in which children and youth participate are dependent on the choices of their parents. Thus, parents’ decisions, choices of where to live, what to provide materially and relationally in the home and how to structure out-of-school time for children, impacts children’s development in ways that are meaningful for later success in the world of work (Abiola, 2014:231). Beggs, Bsutham and Taylor (2008:391) refer to “helicopter parents” who have a tendency to intervene in their children’s college life from choosing a university to helping them choose individual courses. In this case, parents are seen as inseparable from their children’s career choices. This parental/child attachment has been raised in the Social Learning Theory that informs this study when it emphasises the impact of the environment on learners.
Parental education was found to influence children’s career choices, for example, Eccles (2007:668)revealed that, in America, parents’ education and occupation were associated with academic achievement. Parental education was referred to as a determining factor in the selection of careers by British students (Dustman, 2004:227). It was revealed by Pfingst (2015:91) in Australia and Abiola (2014:231) in Nigeria that highly educated parents have more resources, both financially and in terms of academic advice, to support their children than poorer parents. Similarly, in Albania (Uka, 2015:212) and in America (Dustman, 2004:227), parental education levels contribute to children’s career pathways. An earlier study by Fisher and Padmawidjaja (1999:144) revealed that American parents who were college educated were able to instil in their children the desire to have experiences and accomplishments that would enable them to surpass their parents’ educational and occupational levels.
A father’s educational level was found to have an effect on the Irish adolescents’ careerforming attitudes (O’Shea & Kirrane, 2008:545). The results of O’Shea and Kirrane’s (2008) study indicated that the attitude towards managing the career/family interface becomes progressively more positive from the primary level of the father’s education through to the postgraduate level. Canadian parents with higher levels of education are more able to provide assistance for their children’s educational and career planning (Domene et al., 2006:146). However, Obiyo and Eze (2015:26) disputed the fact that parental education influenced Nigerian children’s choice of careers. The current study sought to investigate whether parental education had an influence on children’s career choices.
Careers of parents may have an influence on children’s career choices. For example, Indian parents’ careers were found to be influential on students’ choice of careers (Bakshi, Ghandi, Shah & Maru, 2012:13). Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory emphasises vicarious learning where individuals learn by observing. By observing learned parents relating with the outside world, students are likely to model such parents.
The quality of the relationship between Indian parents and their offspring was considered to influence the younger generation’s preferences for their future careers (Kumar, 2016:28). This means that the kind of relationship between the parents and their children has an impact on career choices. This is reflected in America where children who had healthy independence from family during adolescence and young adulthood were more confident in career choices than those who had dependent relationships (Clutter, 2010:12). Aldefer (2004:573) indicated that American adolescents who cannot separate effectively from their families are not free to make choices based on information and their own desires but are more likely to do what their families expect them to do. It appears that parental influence has limits and if these limits are not adhered to, they can affect children’s career choices. Neimeyer’s (1993:222) results were similar to those of Clutter (2010:12).Neimeyer (1993:222) said that Americans are active agents who individually and collectively co-construct the meaning of their experiential world. Children need help from parents to a certain extent but also need to be given autonomy to explore their world on their own. The assertion above is in line with SCT which asserts that children are the products and the producers of the environment (Alexander et al. 2010:497). The current study sought to investigate whether similar results on parental influence would be obtained.
Parents are seen to influence their children in taking up entrepreneurship as their careers.
According to Aslam,Jahan and Rahman (2012:122), Pakistani parents’ previous experiences of entrepreneurship in practice, both directly and indirectly through their family background in business, is significantly associated with their attitude regarding an entrepreneurial mind-set. A child could have a positive attitude toward entrepreneurship if his or her parents have their own businesses or are otherwise self-employed but parents who experienced depressing circumstances with their own businesses may force their children not to become entrepreneurs (Aslam et al., 2012:120). In other words, parents who have done well in business may encourage their children to be entrepreneurs but those parents who struggled in their businesses may not. This is in line with the Social Learning Theory which informs this study which advocates that the learning environment is critical. In this case, the entrepreneurship environment determines whether the children venture into entrepreneurship or not. If the parents failed to achieve a goal in their own careers, that would affect their children’s vision in that the parent may discourage the child from taking up that career. Aslam et al.’s (2012) study cited parental influence on entrepreneurship whereas this study focused on career choices in general. The above study did not focus on high school students but children in general. The current study focused on high school students only.
Brody, Stoneman and McCoy (1994:279) purport that Canadian parents’ beliefs and values about school can transfer to their children and, in turn, affect the value their children place on learningand eventually on the choice of careers.Parents transmit their own norms and values and belief systems to their children in the hope that the offspring will find them useful in guiding their own decisions and actions. This is referred to as internalisation (Brody et al., 1994:279). The same principle may also apply to parental influence on children’s career choices. In addition, parental nurturing motivates children to please their parents and meet expectations (Ellefsen & Beran, 2007:178). Similarly, in Hong Kong, students value the opinions of their parents (Law & Yeun, 2011:61). This implies that parents can foster interest in certain careers in their children from childhood. The current study sought to ascertain the extent to which parental values influence children’s career choices.
According to Bardick, Berns, Magnusson and Witko (2004:106), Canadian adolescents tend to appreciate their parents’ opinions more than any other source for answers to career related issues. Many parents of Canadian adolescents are in the position to influence their children’s career development because they have observed their children’s development, know their interests and strengths and have developed a trusting relationship with them (Bardick et al., 2004:106). Comparatively, in Singapore, it was revealed that parental involvement had a significant influence on the selection of nursing careers (Ching & Keith, 2011:6). The Singaporean study agrees with an earlier study in America which purports that mothers’ parenting techniques and the nature of their emotional bond with their teenagers may determine whether the adolescents participate in the decision making process (Brody et al., 1994:279). Furthermore, American families were found to be sources of emotional, material, financial and networking support for their children regarding career decision making (Duffy & Dik, 2009:33; Borgen & Hiebert, 2006:369). This means that the bond between the mother and the child back dated to infancy continues to persist into adolescence, influencing the choice of careers. This is in line with Hashim and Embong (2015:83) who revealed that Malaysian parents, especially mothers, are influential in the career choices of secondary school students.
American parents help their children through the expectations they have for their children’s post-secondary education and through home based involvement in their children’ careers (Trusty, Ng & Watts, 2005:66). Home based involvement is the degree to which parents discuss educational and career related matters with their children. It could be the assistance parents give to their children through homework and educational tours which are biased towards the parents’ expectations of their children as they eventually choose their careers. Similarly, Duffy and Dik (2009:33) opined that the power and influence of a family on initial career decisions and subsequent job choices is critical in helping children with career concerns. Parents provide not only a source of identification for their children’s career development but also guide them to formulate feelings about occupations (Fisher & Padmawidjaja, 1999:145).
Students may learn from models in their world whether in urban or rural areas. The immediate world of children is the family. Models could come in the form of family members or other relatives (Braza & Guillo, 2015:83; Ogunyewo et al., 2015:28; Egunjobi et al., 2013:302).This is in line with Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory which informs this study that advocates the importance of role models and vicarious learning. Role models in the family may include parents, older siblings and extended members of the family such as uncles, aunts and cousins. Therefore, students may pursue careers as a result of certain individuals in the family who were role models. In Zimbabwe,Mapfumo et al. (2002:163) stated that relatives were considered to be the main influence in career choices of children in their vicinity.
Mapfumo et al.’s (2002) study also revealed that societies perpetuate certain behaviours among male and female children through the way they are brought up.Mapfumo et al.’s study did not specify the factors that influence career choices but revealed that the family (which is one of the factors in this study) has an important role to play. The study looked at career perceptions and visions of boys and girls in secondary schools in Zimbabwe. The current study aimed at establishing whether parents act as role models as revealed above and influence students’ choice of careers.
Bartle-Haring, Yaunkin and Day (2012:203) argued that there are other contextual factors beyond schools that are related to school engagement such as parental involvement, family routines, family connectedness, parenting practices and family social support including parental expectations for academic achievement. If families are not well coordinated, the children may not be motivated by them in their choices of careers.It is not only the parents and other family members who influence children to choose careers but other family dynamics such as family cohesion and conflicts within families. Although it is not the purpose of this study to reveal these dynamics, they may influence families in assisting their children in choosing their careers.
Families do not always influence students’ choice of careers. For instance, in South Africa, Mashinge and Oduntan (2011:25) and Dodge and Welderndael (2014:46) found that families do not influence career choices. Ma and Yeh (2010:24) established that Chinese-American youths’ parental values were not a significant predictor of career aspirations, plans and vocational outcome expectations. Their study also reflected that, as children grow older, the desire to find fulfilment in a career versus pleasing the family can influence adolescents’ decisions about their career choices. The family’s interference with their children’s career decisions may have a negative influence on the career choices in later stages. Similarly, in Nigeria, parents and relatives played insignificant roles in the choice of library and information science careers (Oloasebikan & Olusakin, 2014:55). Egunjobi et al. (2013:302) also revealed that Nigerian parents did influence their children’s nursing careers. Although Egunjobiet al.’sstudy could be affected by bias as the researcher used purposive sampling and also focused on a particular career, these revelations are still relevant. The downside of non-probability sampling techniques in general and purposive sampling in particular is that an unknown proportion of the entire population will not be sampled. The sample may or may not represent the entire population accurately therefore the results of the research cannot be generalised.Over and above purposive sampling, Egunjobi et al.’s study used participants from nursing colleges and only focused on nursing careers which makes it different from the current study which looks at secondary school students’ career choices. Moreover, the current study used stratified random sampling which gives it an edge and also looked at careers in general not a specific career as did Egunjobi et al.’s study. Stratified random sampling captures key population characteristics in the sample therefore the results can be generalised.
School Influence And Career Choice
Career guidance is offered at institutions of learning such as schools, colleges and universities among others. High schools are a transition to higher institutions of learning and the world of work so they have a critical role in assisting students choose careers (Baloch & Shah, 2014:547). If students have too many choices of careers or have not made a decision on which career to take, schoolcareer guidance is helpful in selecting their study paths and in identifying their potential strengths to enhance their competitiveness for positions (Dodge & Welderndael, 2014; Sun & Yuen, 2012:204). Krumboltz’s theory of Social Learning Theory of career development, which informs this study, emphasises teaching people career development techniques so that they can give career guidance in schools. Similarly Lapan, Tucker, Kim and Fosciulek (2003:329) stated that the transition from high school to university or the world of work has been understood as one of the most difficult developmental challenges confronting adolescents and that schools play a pivotal role in guiding the students towards a career. The current study sought to find out whether career guidance offered in schools influences students’ career choices.
Edwards and Quinter (2011:85) emphasised the influence of Kenyan schools in students’ choices of careers when they argue that it is in schools where students learn about and explore various careers before they make career choices. Korrir and Wafula’s (2012:87) study highlighted the influence of the school on choosing a career. It investigated the factors that influence the choice of hospitality careers at Moi University. They concluded that Kenyan students’ interest in this career could have been developed at high school. The study was carried out at a university and looked at a particular career. The current study does not look at a particular career but careers in general. Similarly, Faiter and Faiter (2013:13) emphasised that American students were influenced at high school to follow STEM subjects which eventually prepare students for careers that are scientific in nature.
Decision making is an important tool in career choice. This is in line with Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory which informs this study that emphasises career decisions. According to Ferreira and Lima (2010:298), decision making is a complex process which can often be difficult and confusing for many Spaniards. In general, career guidance interventions in American schools are concerned, not with telling students what to do, but with helping them acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes that will help them make better career choices and transitions hence ameliorating the problem of career decisions (Watts & Sultana, 2004:111). Similarly, Hansen (2006:34) stated that, in Switzerland, school career exploration and career decision-making activities can be used to broaden students’ awareness of their interests and abilities as well as the career opportunities that exist. Decision making is one of the basic tenets of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory which emphasises self-efficacy. According to Social Cognitive Theory, self-efficacy entails the belief in one’s capability to succeed on a given task. Hence, students are likely to choose careers based on whether they have the capacity to do well in their chosen careers.
Kimiti and Mwova (2012:366) reported that school career guidance positively influenced career decision-making, understanding of careers and career related adjustments about students’ career choices. Moreover, the study revealed that when students are not guided in their choice of careers, they do not know what is good for them or even what they want. Hence, a lack of career guidance may cause students to make wrong choices and enrol for studies they know little or nothing about (Kimiti & Mwova, 2012:366). This implies that schools play a pivotal role in preparing students for future careers. Similarly, a South African study by Shumba and Naong (2012:171) found that career choices are decided long before the learners come to universities. The majority of respondents in the above South African study attributed their career choices at universities to subject choices they made whilst they were still in schools.
It is the role of the school from early adolescence, to assist learners to find meaning in their present and future lives (Mampane & Bouwer, 2011:124). American school engagement involves behavioural as well as emotional components that play a mediational role in the association between developmental assets such as careers and academic competence (Li, Lerner & Lerner, 2010:811). According to Jackson and Nutini (2002:58), the goal of American school counselling is not to determine a delimited career choice but rather to expand students’ learning about potential career and educational interests, abilities, beliefs and options.
Nigerian school youths who are ignorant of the nature and requirements of various occupations can find the issue of selecting an occupation difficult and complex (Petters & Asuquo, 2009:211). As such, schools engage a variety of activities to help students cope with the complexity of career choices. Hence, career guidance was seen in Nigeria as enabling guidance counsellors to assist individuals to identify and learn the skills for more effective planning and choosing jobs, in making effective transitions and adjustments to work and in managing their own careers and career transitions effectively (Lazarus & Chinwe, 2011:58).
Mghweno, Mghweno and Baguma (2014:13) established that Tanzanian school career guidance teachers play a key role in preparing students to successfully proceed to the next level, whether for further education or a job. The same study also revealed that access to guidance and counselling services influence students’ attitude towards studies, which will consequently influence their career choices (Mghweno et al., 2014:13).
Due to the difficulties encountered in making career choices in schools, many students in Israel seek guidance from career guidance teachers (Gati, Amir & Landman, 2010:393). This is in line with Krumboltz’s (1996:58) Social Learning Theory, one of the theories informing this study, which purports that career guidance teachers could take a proactive stand in encouraging clients to try out new activities to determine whether new interests can be identified. A Nigerian study confirmed the role of school career guidance teachers when it established that school career guidance counselling has an effective and significant influence in increasing the students’ career awareness when compared to a group with no career counselling (Eyo, 2011:338). The major finding of Eyo’s study was that students who are exposed to career guidance are more equipped with career seeking techniques when compared to those who did not get the guidance. Hence, the more in-depth the counselling the students receive, the more proactive they become.
Career guidance teachers in schools have an important role in advocating for broad based career plans that focus on the student’s interests and abilities and that will increase future career options (Mghweno et al., 2014:13). Similarly, Zayas and McGuigan (2006:1529) emphasised the role of career guidance teachers when they stated that American school guidance teachers are uniquely positioned to stimulate students’ interest in the health professions. In the same American study, it was revealed that many of the focus group participants felt career guidance teachers were largely helpful.
Bardick et al. (2004:114) revealed that a proactive career counselling approach that benefits Canadian students would include building trusting relationships with students, encouraging them to closely examine and explore their occupational interests, providing students with information about the stages of decision making involved in career planning and guiding them in their search for information about careers. This could build trust and legitimacy in the counsellor making him or her influential in the students’ career choices. Bardick et al. (2004:114) further purported that counsellors who wish to become more influential in students career planning may need to become more actively involved in students’ everyday lives. Career guidance is not only confined to the classroom but could be extended to the external world. The current study sought to establish whether counselling in schools in the Midlands Province of Zimbabwe played a pivotal role in students’ career choices.
In developed countries, career guidance is not solely the duty of school counsellors and teachers but also includes independent counsellors. Such counselling may require a fee which could deter some students from getting that help. However, Balin and Hirschi (2010:174) advocate that the students who do not go to independent counsellors to seek help may benefit from classroom career guidance, where they may have the chance to build relationships with school counsellors and become more comfortable in seeking one-to-one interactions later in the process. School career counselling may be the answer for those who may have problems with attaining professional guidance offered elsewhere. Balin and Hirschi (2010:174) argued that Swiss school career guidance or group work activities can help students develop career adaptability. School career guidance was seen as influential in preparing Kenyan students for their career choices (Owino & Odundo, 2016:2240; Edwards & Quinter, 2011:85).
Balin and Hirschi’s (2010) study was carried out in the German speaking region of Switzerland. They concluded that Swiss students should work on more career guidance activities that will provide awareness, comfort and skills for career exploratory behaviours. This, they believed, would develop career adaptability, such as learning about the educational and vocational system and transitions, the actual opportunities and barriers of the system and individuals, decision-making skills and the importance of seeking help from professionals (Balin & Hirschi, 2010:165).
Teachers were found to influence students’ choice of careers. Several studies revealed the influence of teachers on a variety of careers, for example, in Pakistan (Abbasi & Sarwat, 2014:811), in America (Faiter & Faiter, 2013:13), in the Philippines (Aguado et al., 2015:237) and in Nigeria (Gbenga & Toyin, 2014:59). High school teachers were found to guide students toward IT careers (McInerney, Didonato, Giagnacova & O’Donnell, 2008:46). In addition, McInerney et al. (2008:47) stated that prior experience with technology in high school or university directs students towards IT careers.
Walters (2010:222) identified the characteristics of teachers that Australian learners identified as supportive of their career pathways. They include: connecting pedagogical practices with students’ interests, being passionate about their subject matter, having good content knowledge, making learning experiences relevant, setting high expectations of students, being a good explainer of complex ideas and being a good classroom manager. This is consistent with Social Cognitive Theory which emphasises the development of career guidance for learners. In other words, the day-to-day activities of the teacher are crucial in motivating students towards a career.
The Yorkshire Times (2012:2) revealed that at Tong High School in England, staff training and development put teachers at the forefront as they discovered that teachers were best placed to inspire the students’ career choices and bring out the best in the students. The Yorkshire Times discovered that teachers at their schools had an influence over respondents' career choices. The same study also confirmed that enthusiastic, knowledgeable and committed teachers lead young people towards careers. Bright, Pryor, Wilkenfeld and Earl (2005:31) reiterated the importance of teachers in career guidance when they purport that teachers were second most important grouping in helping students choose their careers. The poll by The Yorkshire Times (2012:2) which examined the reasons why respondents picked a certain job, found that 50 percent of the participants made the decision as a result of a particular teacher. According to Kniveton (2004:47), British school teachers can identify aptitudes and abilities and encourage students to take certain subject options, take part in work experience or employment visits.
School subjects were found to play a major role in influencing students to prefer certain careers over others. Studies have revealed the influence of school subjects on students’ choices of careers. For instance, in Pakistan (Naz, Saeed, Khan, Sheik & Khan, 2014:1194), and in America (Faiter & Faiter, 2013:13), school subjects were found to influence students in choosing careers. The quality of teaching, student participation in school activities, school practices and policies and learning materials for the students were found to impact on career choices among learners (Shumba & Naong, 2012:171). Schools therefore guide students towards certain careers by exposing them to a variety of activities. The current study sought to establish the extent to which Zimbabwean schools influence career choices among high school students.
Mexican American high school students identified school mentors as helpful when they provide verbal encouragement for students’ career goals or when the mentors were available for support as students made decisions about their future careers (Walaba & Kiboss, 2013:12; Durosaro & Nohu, 2012:144; Flores & Obasi, 2005:160). Flores and Obasi (2005:147) further reiterated the importance of a mentoring relationship which could advance learners’ career development if mentors provide the requisite skills to gain entry into and progress in a profession. Mentors can assist mentees in identifying the necessary resources to achieve career goals (Flores & Obasi, 2005:147). Similarly, Canadian school mentors, in the form of teachers, career guidance teachers and sometimes school heads, were found to be influential in students’ career development (Fried & MacCleave, 2009:495). Furthermore, mentors can provide students with an introductory network of professionals in the field and by introducing students to colleges (Flores & Obasi, 2005:147). American teachers who act as mentors in schools constitute an individual social support network (Zayas & McGuigan, 2006:1529; Flores & Obasi, 2005:147). Several other studies, for example, in the Philippines (Aguado et al., 2015:237), in Pakistan (Abbasi & Sarwat, 2014:811), in Nigeria (Ogunyewo et al., 2015:28), in Kenya (Migunde, Agak & Odiwuor, 2012:235) and in South Africa (Shumba & Naong,
2012:171) have confirmed the influence of mentors on students’ choices of careers. The current study sought to establish whether school mentors influence students’ choices of careers.
Mexican American high school students most often identify having role models in schools who lead by example, who are supportive and provide direct career guidance to students as influential in their career decision making (Koech, Bitok, Rutto, Koech, Okoth, Korrir & Ngala, 2016:61). Similarly, in a study in America, high school students’ job satisfaction and career decisions were related to positive experiences with their role models, such as school guidance counsellors, indicating that visiting the school guidance office was effective in achieving job satisfaction (Rowland, 2004:10). It is also believed that role models help students develop educational and career interests that they might not have considered. The above assertions highlight the need of all stakeholders in career guidance in schools in assisting students to make correct career decisions. This is in line with the Social Cognitive Theory which informs this study that advocates that role models inspire learners. The present study sought to find out whether role models influence students’ choices of careers.
Field trips and school career days were found to have a significant influence on students’ choices of careers. For example, in the United Kingdom, field trips were found to have an impact on students’ choices of careers (Higgins, Dewhurst & Walkins, 2012:175). Similar studies in America also found that field trips and career days influence students’ career choices (Nabors, Edwards & Murray, 2006:666; Behrandt & Frankline, 2014:13), in Czechoslovakia (Prokop, Tuncer & Kvasnicak, 2007:253). Similar findings were obtained in Pakistan (Shakil, Faizi & Hafeez, 2011:14), in Ireland (Higgins et al., 2012:224) and in Ghana (Amoah et al., 2015:64) where the importance of field trips in influencing students’ choices of careers was revealed. The current study sought to establish whether Zimbabwean school field trips and career days influenced students’ career choices.
The type of school also has a significant influence on the careers chosen by students. Studies in the Bahamas (Rowland, 2004:9) and in Kenya (Chemeli, 2013:56) showed that the type of school had a bearing on choices of careers. Schools are categorised differently all over the world. There are government schools, mission schools, private schools, boarding and day schools. These schools may have different cultures which influence the careers that are preferred by students.
Another important aspect about schools with regard to career choices was the geographical location of the school (Roy, 2016:5; Fizer, 2013:33; Perna, Rowan-Kenyon, Thomas, Bell, Anerson & Chunyan, 2008:140). The constraints on providing career counselling vary across schools based on the characteristics of the students the school serves and the location of schools, in particular, district or state (Perna et al., 2008:140). The current study was carried out in Zimbabwe and included both rural and urban high schools and intended to establish whether the location of the school influenced students’ career choices. In contrast, Ko, Lee, Leung, Vikis and Yoshida (2007:486) established that geographical location of the school has no influence on British students’ career choices. The reason for these contrasting results could be the participants that were used in the study. The participants in Ko et al.’s (2007) study were foreigners living in Britain.
The next section discusses the influence of gender on career choice.
Gender Influence And Career Choice
Gender is viewed as the division of people into two categories, men and women, based on their biological differences (Jamabo, Enebeli & Ester, 2012:91). Several studies, for example, in America (Tang et al., 2008:191; Fisher & Padmawidjaja, 1999:148; Ahuja, Ogan, Herring & Robinson, 2006:20), in Pakistan (Abbasi & Sarwat, 2014:841) in the Philippines (Morales, Avila & Espinosa, 2016:77), in South Africa (Mwamwenda, 2013:14; Mudhovozi & Chireshe, 2012:174), in Nigeria (Ehigbor, & Akinlosotu, 2016:207; Egunjobi et al., 2013:300; Kikechi, Owano, Ayado & Ejakait, 2013:390; Durosaro & Adebanke 2012:12; Igbinedion, 2011:335), in Kenya (Simiyu, 2015:88; Migunde et al., 2012:49) and in Zimbabwe (Mutekwe et al., 2011:140) have shown the influence of gender in career decision making.
Since gender is used to distinguish between males and females, it implies that there are a number of attributes that go with gender as defined by society.According to Jamabo et al. (2012:91), through interactions with caretakers, socialisation in childhood, peer pressure in adolescence, and gendered work and family roles, men and women are socially constructed to be different in behaviour, attitude and emotions. This also influences the careers they choose. There are also different roles for men and women. Corrigall and Konrad (2007:847) state that traditional individuals in American believe that a woman’s role is to be a homemaker and that a man’s role is a breadwinner. However, there is a paradigm shift as more American egalitarian individuals believe that women should share in financial support of the family and that men should participate in childcare and other traditionally feminine aspects of household labour (Corrigall & Konrad, 2007:847). In other words, women have the capacity to engage in maledominated careers and men engage in what are perceived as women’s jobs as defined by the society.
The influence of gender in career choices has been documented in many studies. In Nigeria, female students go for careers that are feminist in nature while their male counterparts opt for careers that are masculine in nature (Durosaro & Adebanke, 2012:12; Akinbode & Fagbohungbe, 2011:4033). In China, Chow and Ngo (2002:16) state that gender differences are attributed to sex role socialisation which creates a clear distinction between sex roles, prejudice and discrimination which affect the status of women in the economy. Kenyan females choose careers that correspond with their traditional gender roles and males also choose careers that match those of their traditional gender roles (Migunde et al., 2012:494).
Griffin et al. (2011:177) established that, in America, when gender beliefs are salient they shape behaviour most powerfully by affecting people’s sense of what others expect of them. Similarly, Ahuja et al. (2006:20) revealed that gender influences behaviours and preferences across a variety of contexts. Ahuja et al.’s study further explained that male students use computers earlier in life especially to play computer games.
It was also established in Nigeria that the use of computers and internet has the potential to equip students with career information that would give male students an edge over their female counterparts (Durosaro & Adebanke, 2012:112). On the other hand, an Australian study by Miliszewska and Sztendur (2010:257) indicated a positive attitude towards computers among girls. The participants were of different origins, among them Europeans, Asians, Australians and Africans at different high schools in Melbourne Australian.
Igbinedion (2011:332) revealed that Nigerian male students perceived parental influence as a factor that influenced their choice of a secretarial career, which is more inclined towards female students. Similarly, Agarwala (2008:362) established that Indian fathers were found to be the most significant influence in the career choices of Indian boys and girls in management. The same study further revealed that mothers also influenced girls.The Indian study is consistent with Paa and McWhirter (2000:40) who reported that American girls consistently reported more positive influences from same sex parents, friends and teachers. Although the results for boys perceived positive influences from their fathers, they also reported an equal and occasionally higher percentage of positive influences from their mothers (Paa & McWhirter, 2000:36).
In the Netherlands, technical and natural sciences are still male dominated despite efforts to encourage females to study them (Klapwijk & Rommes, 2009:404). In spite of the fact that, in the Netherlands, girls have wide ranging professional values and form a heterogeneous group, the masculine image remains an important and persistent obstacle. Like in many other countries, the belief that girls do not like to work with physical objects is also quite pervasive in the Netherlands (Klapwijk & Rommes, 2009:404). Similarly, male and female American medical students differed in the value they placed on comprehensive patient care when selecting careers (Behrend, Thompson, Meade, Grayson & Newton, 2007:4).
Female students in America were more likely than their male counterparts to choose occupations that involve helping others and expressing themselves while, in contrast, boys were more interested in having higher self-efficacy and were more likely to choose occupations involving data or realistic, investigative, enterprising and conventional occupations (Griffin et al., 2011:177; Tang et al., 2008:285-295). Jamabo et al. (2012:92) also purport that, generally, Nigerian girls are interested in literacy, clerical, artistic, musical and social activities while boys indicated preferences for outdoor, mechanical, computational, business and industrial professions. The belief that boys and girls choose careers based on gender lines is built during adolescence when gender roles manifest (Klapwijk & Rommes, 2009:405). For girls, the gender bias may result in an aversion to all technical occupations since they represent masculinity. Similarly, English boys tend to choose more traditionally male subjects and girls more traditionally female subjects which are likely to influence their choices of gender based careers (Favara, 2012:30). This is in line with the Social Learning Theory, which informs this study, which emphasises that students (boys and girls) will choose careers that are dictated by their social interaction which is the environment.
A survey on Public Relations students in America indicated that college students categorise public relations specialties, in terms of those areas and qualities they seek in their own careers based on gender (Andsager & Hust, 2005:89). Although the study above was carried out at only one university in America, it established that the public relations profession is feminine in nature. Another study in America indicated that men and women in the medical profession were different in their areas of speciality where women place more value on comprehensive patient care than their male counterparts (Behrend et al., 2007:4). This is also in line with Corrigall and Konrad (2007:847) who purport that women and men in America vary in their individual views concerning appropriate roles and behaviours for the sexes in the paid work and family domains. This implies that gender plays a pivotal role in career choice at different levels in life. However, the present study sought to establish if girls in Zimbabwe choose different careers than boys.
Furthermore, Andsager and Hust (2005:89) purported that if American professionals and students perceive that specialties involving mathematics, science and physical exertion are gendered male, that perception is likely to be based on differential educational expectations. Students identified female-oriented specialty areas as more ethical and more caring. Such areas have significantly lower salaries than the male-oriented areas, which did not fare well in terms of ethics and caring. Similarly, Mutekwe et al. (2011:138) established a distinction between Zimbabwean male and female students in the choice of subjects where males chose the sciences and females chose the arts. Such choices would influence students to pursue different careers as guided by the subjects they had done. The above studies indicate gender disparity among students.
Klapwijk and Rommes (2009:405) argue that gender is still a hindrance to career choices. Similarly, Balin and Hirschi (2010:172) indicated that Swiss boys were less likely to seek career guidance and counselling as compared to their female counterparts. This implies that their line of thinking has already been established due presumably to socialisation resulting in them choosing careers that are in line with their gender. Eyo et al. (2010:96) also stated that gender has a significant influence on the attitudes of the students towards guidance and counselling services. Eyo et al. (2010) further revealed that gender difference in the students’ attitudes gave a mean score of 22.00 for female and a lower mean score of 19.00 for male. The study also concluded that females responded favourably to career guidance services when compared to boys. Similarly, Dellana and Snyder (2004:37) revealed that American female students were more satisfied than male students with career counselling they received. However, in the same study, females, more than males, reported feelings of uneasiness when talking with guidance counsellors and males reported, more often than females, that guidance counsellors were not well informed in terms of careers. This implies that gender affected the way students responded to career counselling. A later American study by Griffin et al. (2011:177) also purported that, unlike male students, female students reported that school counsellors and college resource materials were helpful. In the same study, female students were more likely than male students to report using various sources for information about their educational and occupational aspirations.
Eyo (2011:337) revealed that gender has a significant influence on the occupation preference among counselled and uncounselled Nigerian students. Whether the student received counselling or not, the gender influence continues to manifest in students. Mapfumo, et al. (2002:161) explained that there is a difference between jobs expected and preferred by both Zimbabwean girls and boys after school. The Zimbabwean study by Mapfumo et al. was carried out in Masvingo and Manicaland Provinces while the current study was carried in the Midlands Province.
Klapwijk and Rommes (2009: 405) revealed that gender segregation was much more distinctive in professions for which Dutch preparatory and secondary vocational education provides. Chemeli (2013:352) is in agreement and indicated that separating Kenyan students by sex has an influence on how students choose their careers. The Kenyan study shows that, when the sexes are separated in school, the aspirations are different, but when they are together in school, both boys and girls seem to influence each other and choose careers that they would not have chosen if they were separated.
Although many studies have highlighted the influence of gender on career choices, there are other studies that have different perspectives, for example, Ojeda and Flores (2008:91), and Gati and Saka (2001:339) stated that male and female students in America perceived similar patterns of influence on their current career expectations. Other studies, such as Malubay, Mercado and Emeliza (2015:37) in the Philippines and Uka (2015:212) in Albania, found that gender has no influence on career choices.Similarly, studies carried out in Nigeria (Ottu & Nkenchor, 2010:3008) and in Kenya (Migunde et al., 2012:235) showed that there was no significant difference in the choices of boys and girls in professions such as teaching, trading or business, law and judicial services as both sexes made virtually equal choices.
Peer Influence And Career Choice
Peer influence cannot be underestimated as it was found to be influential in career choices.
Faiter and Faiter (2013:113) and Alika (2010b:180) in America, Abbasi and Sarwat (2014:181), Edwards and Quinter (2011:225) in Nigeria, Shumba and Naong (2012:171) in South Africa and Kimiti and Mwova (2012:364) in Kenya found that students were influenced by their peers in a variety of ways such as peer counselling, peer interaction, peer advice and peer relationships. Peer counselling is a way of relating, responding and helping aimed at exploring feelings, thoughts and concerns with the hope of reaching a clear understanding (Odirile, 2012:2). In schools, peer counselling is a phenomenon that was established to help students in schools solve problems (Bett, 2013:479). The main goal of peer counselling is to enable students to appreciate each other as well as to understand the importance of education (Odirile, 2012:3). Studies in Kenya (Kaaria, Nyaga, Oundo & Mureithi, 2014:215; Marangu, Bururia & Njonge, 2012:84) revealed that peer counsellors are important in mentoring students, sharing information and supporting each other.
Bett (2013:482) purported that the rationale of peer counselling is based on the assumption that people who share similar characteristics and ages tend to influence one another. Similarly, Chireshe (2013:353) in Zimbabwe reiterated the importance of peer counselling in schools when he argued that information was easily disseminated through peer counselling. Peer counselling is consistent with Social Cognitive Theory which informs this study which purports that social variables, such as peers, may influence earners’ career choices.
Peers influence career choice through peer interactions. It was revealed in Uganda (Okiror & Otabong, 2015:18) and in Kenya (Walaba & Kiboss, 2013:12) that peer interactions influence students in choosing careers. As the students interact, they share information about careers. This is in line with Krumboltz’ Social Learning Theory which emphasises the importance of learners interacting with one another in their environment.
Students’ interactions with peers play a central role in how students think about themselves (Yi-Hui, 2006). In his study in China, Yi-Hui (2006) revealed that students’ interactions with peers of diversified interests, races and backgrounds have the potential to stimulate reflection, knowledge and beliefs which may lead to new ways of thinking about the world, other peers and eventually themselves. For peers to understand the world of work, their interaction makes it possible for them to venture into careers they were unaware of. Kiuru (2008:36) also revealed the importance of peer interaction in Finland when he stated that the academic orientation typical of the peer group to which they belong may potentially have a long term impact on individual adolescents’ vocational careers.
Faiter and Faiter (2013:113) and Roy (2016:4) in America, Goethner, Obschonka, Silbereisen and Canter (2009:25) in Germany, Njeri (2013:45) in Pakistan, Kimiti and Mwova (2012:364) in Kenya, Shumba and Naong (2012:364) in South Africa, and Egunjobi et al. (2013:302) in
Nigeria reiterated the influence of peer advice on career choices. According to Migunde et al. (2012:235), when Kenyan students interact with their friends, they may take into consideration the career advice they receive.
In the absence of proper career guidance and teacher mentorship, students resort to peer mentorship. According to Njeri (2013:45) and Okiror and Otabong (2015:180) in Kenya, students turn to peers who have similar experiences for mentorship, information and guidance on career issues especially when other proper avenues like school career guidance are not properly functioning. In Kenya, Koech et al. (2016:61) emphasise the influence of peer mentorship in students’ choices of careers. However, in United Arab Emirates (Ausman, Javed, Ahmed, Samad, Pour, Mathew, Shaikh, Sharbatti & Screedharan, 2013:20), peer mentorship was found to have little influence on medical students’ choices of careers. Ausman et al.’s study (2013) concentrated on a certain group of people who were already training for a particular career while the current study looked at students who are yet to engage in a career.
Peer relationships were also found to be influential in students’ choices of careers. Kiuru (2008:35) purports that, in Finland, peer group members who are closely related are likely to end up in similar educational trajectories as they are likely to accept opinions from members who are similar to themselves. Kiuru (2008:34) further states that peer group members resembled each other, not only in their educational expectations, but also their subsequent educational trajectories. In a Nigerian study by Bankole and Ogunsakin (2015:330), peer relationships were revealed as a significant factor in helping students choose careers. Pakistani students who were close to each other in terms of friendship were likely to influence each other to take certain careers (Naz et al., 2014:1196).
Alika (2010b:180), Ho (2006:85) and Obwoge and Kibor (2016:478) espouse that peer encouragement was found to be a critical factor in influencing American students’ choice of careers. This is in line with Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory which states that realistic encouragement leads to greater effort and eventually to greater success. Since high school students are adolescents, they may rely on people of their own age.
Peers also encourage students to choose entrepreneurship. Malaysian students were influenced by their peers to choose entrepreneurship as their careers (Mustapha & Selvaraju, 2015:167) Similarly, in America, Kacperczky (2012:16) purports that entrepreneurial actions hinge on having access to information about entrepreneurial opportunities and influential peers enhance entrepreneurial rates by providing information to identify such opportunities. Although Kacperczky’s (2012:4) study was carried out at a university, it established that university peers may facilitate the transfer of entrepreneurial initiatives and attitudes by alleviating the uncertainty associated with these careers. The current study was carried in Zimbabwean high schools with the intention to find out whether students in high schools were influenced by peers to choose entrepreneurship as career.
Hashim and Embong (2015:81) agree that the student’s peer group is the single most potent source of influence with regard to career choices. Adolescents are easily influenced by their peers because they rely on their friends to provide validation of the choices that they make, including career decisions. The current study sought to find out whether validation of students’ choices of careers comes from fellow students.
A number of challenges were raised about the effectiveness of peer counselling in schools. Chireshe (2013:353), for example, cited lack of training among peer counsellors and Kamore and Tiego (2015:257) enumerated that failure by Kenyan peer counsellors to resolve their own problems impacted negatively on their duties as peer counsellors.
Contrary to earlier findings, it has been observed in America that there was no significant relationship between peer group influence and career choices in humanities among secondary school adolescents (Alika, 2010b:183). Peers were found to be less likely to influence high school students in choosing careers.
2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
John Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory, developed in 1979, emphasises the importance of behaviour (actions) and cognition (knowing and thinking) (Sharf, 1997:324). The essence of
Krumboltz’s view is that certain generic processes, such as learning experiences, affect the career development of all persons regardless of their cultural affiliations (Lent & Worthington, 2000:380) hence the need to explore the factors that influence career pathways among high school students in Zimbabwe. This theory differs from other theories of career development in that its focus is on teaching people career decision making techniques and how to use such techniques effectively in selecting career alternatives (Ireh, 2000:36). The types of learning experiences that affect an individual are dependent on his or her culture (Lent & Worthington, 2000:380).
Krumboltz identified four factors that play important role in the selection of a specific career: genetic endowment, environmental conditions, learning experiences and task approach skills (Beal, 1998:297; Ireh, 2000:36). According to the Social Learning Theory, genetic endowment refers to those aspects of the individual that are inherited or innate rather than learned. This may set limits on individual career opportunities. Environmental conditions are those conditions that are generally outside the control of the individual and influence skills development and career preferences.According to Krumboltz, learningexperiences include a) one’s career performances as a result of prior learning experiences; b) individuals’ prior learning experiences that eventually influence their career decisions; and c) that individuals’ prior learning experiences have a direct effect on their career choices. According to Sharf (1997:330), individuals may make observations about themselves and their environment that they will then use to make career decisions. Observations about the self include capabilities, interests and work values (Ireh, 2000:36). Krumboltz emphasised task approach skills such as goal setting, values clarification, generating alternatives and obtaining occupational information in career decision making. Ireh (2000:36) explained that the interaction between genetic endowment, environmental conditions and learning experiences lead to the skills required for completing a variety of tasks. The Social Learning Theory by Krumboltz is relevant to this study because it includes environmental factors such as family, the learning environment and gender. Our behaviour is shaped by beliefs about ourselves and how we relate to society (Schonorr & Ware, 2001:249). According to Krumboltz (1991:2), people make assumptions and generalisations about themselves and the world of work based on their limited experiences. In this case, students in high schools have limited experiences to choose an appropriate career hence the need for a counsellor and/or a supportive environment.
In short, Krumboltz’s theory of career decision making and development is based on social learning or environmental conditions, genetic influences and learning experiences. People choose their careers based on what they have learned.
Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), developed by Albert Bandura in 1986, purports that contextual variables such as social support, which includes friends, family and relatives, influence the career choice of an individual (Choo, Norsia & Tan, 2012:22). Social persuasion also affects an individual’s choice of career (Lent, Brown & Hacket, 2002:36) because there is dialogue between children and their environment. Similarly, Bandura posited that when individuals watch their peers succeeding, they are likely to believe that they can also succeed (Mills, 2009:9). In this career development model, a person’s background (or contextual factors) and individual characteristics influence his/her learning experiences and consequently self-efficacy (Tang, Pan & Newmeyer, 2008:285). According to Bandura (1989:1) and Alexander, Seabi and Bischof (2010:497), because of the bi-directionality of influence between behaviour and environmental circumstances, people are both products and producers of their environment.
They affect the nature of their experienced environment through selection and creation of situations. This is in line with the SCT which states that realistic encouragement that leads people to exert greater effort is likely to bring success in career development (Bandura, 1988:285). The researcher found this theory provided the framework to examine the environment that promotes development in students’ quests for sustainable careers. The theory recognises both the cognitive and environmental factors although this study concentrates more on environmental factors.
Social Cognitive Theory focuses on several cognitive variables (for example, self-efficacy, outcome expectations and goals) and on how these variables interact with other aspects of the person and his or her environment (for example, gender, ethnicity, social support and barriers) to shape the course of career development (Lent & Brown, 2000:36). According to Bandura (2002:269), the theory distinguishes three modes of agency: a) personal agency exercised individually; b) proxy agency in which people secure desired outcomes by influencing others to act on their behalf; and c) collective agency in which people act in concert to shape their futures. Students in high schools are influenced by these three modes when they choose careers, among many variables, that they feel are appropriate for them. The environment, which imposes itself on them, also impacts their choice of careers. These are the reasons that this particular theory is used in this study to investigate factors that influence career pathways among high school students in Zimbabwe.
According to Social Cognitive Theory, career development is influenced by both objectives and perceived environmental factors (Lent & Worthington, 2000:37). Examples of objective factors include the quality of educational experiences to which a person has been exposed to such as school counselling and the financial support available from family or guardians for pursuing particular training. People live their lives in socio-cultural milieus that differ in their shared values, customs, social practices and institutional constraints and opportunities (Bandura, 2002:274). This study allowed the researcher to establish whether the above results can be achieved in Zimbabwe using participants from different backgrounds.
The applicability of the SCT to explain career choice behaviour of school students was verified in a similar study by Tang et al. (2008:285) and was therefore deemed suitable for the current study that looked at career choices among high school students. The theory applied to this study because social factors such as peer and family interactions that affect decision making were considered. In addition to career development, the theory has been extended to domains of behaviour such as educational achievement, affective reactions, and organisational and health maintenance (Lent & Brown, 1996:307).