THE INFLUENCE OF PARENTING STYLE ON ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND CAREER PATH

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Concept of Education

According to National Policy on Education(1979), Education is the process of acquiring knowledge. It is a tool for person’s development, the single most powerful weapon against poverty, and a fundamental human right to which we all are entitled. It gives people the opportunity to improve on their health, raise productivity and help foster participation in civil society. Education is a process of keeping the world and our society intact and in fostering the development and growth upon which human survival and progress depends. It the development of process of equipping individuals with knowledge and skills to enable them solve the complex problems of living usefully for themselves, their families and make worthwhile contribution to the overall progress and development of the overall progress and development of the society. “Thus the educational process has been described as the intentional transmission of something worthwhile or desirable in a morally acceptable manner. It is the all-round development of a person physically, intellectually, morally, and spiritually. This implies that education encourages a wholesome development of the individual through participation in the activities of the social group, and that there must be a guide who can direct such education in a way that can result in all round development of a person. Education is a tool for national development, the single most powerful weapon against poverty, and a fundamental human right to which we all are entitled. It gives people the opportunity to improve health, raise productivity and help foster participation in civil society. Education is a process of keeping the world and our society intact and in fostering the development and growth upon which human survival and progress depends.

Okeke D. (2009) further asserts that Education is the process of providing information to an inexperienced person to help him/her develop physically, mentally, socially, emotionally, spiritually, politically and economically. That is why at graduation ceremonies one hears the Vice-Chancellors pronounce these words while awarding degrees to their institutions’ graduates, “you have been found worthy in character and learning…” In education parlance, it means that the individual has acquired adequate and appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes and values, known as cognitive, psychomotor and affective behaviours to be able to function optimally as a citizen. These behaviors are the focus of training individuals in institutions of learning .

The planned and systematic training given in an institution of learning is formal education. The programme or is organized, planned and systematically implemented. In an informal education, there is no plan and the training is haphazard and incidental. Education is the process through which individuals are made functional members of their society (Ocho, J. 2005). It is a process through which the young acquires knowledge and realizes her potentialities and uses them for self-actualization, to be useful to herself and others. It is a means of preserving, transmitting and improving the culture of the society. In every society education connotes acquisition of something good, something worthwhile. Education is one of the fundamental rights of individuals. Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December, 1949 stipulated that:

• Everyone has the right to education.
• This shall be free at least in the elementary and primary stages.
• Elementary education shall be compulsory while technical and professional
• Education shall be made generally available.
• Higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.

According to Nwangwu, (1976) cited in Etim, M.(2013) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Why should everyone have the right to education? The answers to this question are given thus:

• The child is born helpless and has to rely entirely on parents and other older members of the society to survive and satisfy her growth needs in all their ramifications
• The degree and quality of participation in the life of the society depends to a large extent on the degree and quality of her education. This will enable her perform her political and other citizenship duties and exercise the rights pertaining thereto effectively.

Kingley,A. (2015) further explained that every citizen benefits from the result of the education of her fellow citizen and since every generation receives its education from an older generation, every generation has a duty to reciprocate by educating the generation that comes after it.. There is an adage that says “educate a man, you educate an individual, but educate a woman, you educate a nation” The above summarizes the essence of education to the girl-child and indeed, to every educable human being, and so calls for special attention to be focused on education of the girl-child. No nation can afford to toy with the education of her citizens, especially, the child, who will be the father or mother of tomorrow, because education is the bedrock of all facets of development. Children are future leaders of tomorrow and mothers are guardians of the future, and the first aim of every family and society should be to raise healthy and productive individuals who are physically, psychologically, socially, and mentally well developed. These can be achieved through the education of the girl-child who is the mother of tomorrow.

Concept of Academic Performance

The world is becoming more and more competitive. Quality of performance has become the key factor for personal progress. In fact, it appears as if the whole system of education revolves round the academic performance of students, though various other outcomes are also expected from the system. Thus a lot of time and effort of the schools are used for helping students to achieve better in their scholastic endeavours. The importance of scholastic and academic performance has raised important questions for educational researchers (Larry, Y. 2010). However, the complexity of the academic achievement starts from its conceptualization.

Sometimes it is known as school readiness, academic achievement and school performance, but generally the difference in concepts are only explained by semantics as they are used as synonyms. Conventionally, it has been agreed that academic performance should be used in university populations and school performance in regular and alternative basic education populations. We will point out just a few because there is a diversity of definitions. Several authors agree that academic performance is the result of learning, prompted by the teaching activity by the teacher and produced by the student. From a humanistic approach, Martinez (2007) states that academic performance is “the product given by the students and it is usually expressed through school grades”. Pizarro in 1985 referred to academic performance as a measure of the indicative and responsive abilities that express, in an estimated way, what a person has learned as a result of a process of education or training. For Caballero et al. (2007), academic performance involves meeting goals, achievements and objectives set in the program or course that a student attends. These are expressed through grades which are the result of an assessment that involves passing or not certain tests, subjects or courses. On their part, Torres and Rodríguez (2006 quoted by Willcox, 2011) define academic performance as the level of knowledge shown in an area or subject compared to the norm, and it is generally measured using the grade point average.

Academic performance is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has attained their short or long-term educational goals. Completion of educational benchmarks such as secondary school diplomas and bachelor's degrees represent academic achievement(Wikipedia.org). Academic performance means the knowledge and skills that students have mastered in a subject or a course. It’s basically a measure of how well students have performed in the various assessment items set for them based on some educational criteria determined by professional educators. Academic performance is arrived through students' performance in the assessment items such as essays, tests, and examinations, students’ performance are determined in ranking as to the educational standards that they have reached pass, credit, distinction, high distinction and so on (Quora. 2016).

Academic performance is a tool for identifying strength and weakness in education and is an outcome of an educational assessment. The practice of educational assessment seeks to determine how well the learners are learning and provides feedback to learners and other stakeholders on the effectiveness of education services (National Resource Council 2004) the education system uses academic performance to design and implement programs and services that may improve the academic performance of learners with hearing impairment. The Ministry of Education and parents have a greater desire to see the children’s upbringing and educations improve in order to increase demands made by the work place on young people’s basic skills (Abdu-Raheem, B.2015). Over the years research has shown that learners with hearing impairment in Kenya have consistently trailed behind their hearing counterparts in academic performance.

Hence, academic performance occupies a very important place in education as well as in the learning process. Academic performance has become an index of individual’s future in this highly competitive world. Academic performance has been one of the most important goals of the educational process. It is also a major goal, which every individual is expected to perform in all cultures, Academic performance is a key mechanism through which adolescents learn about their talents, abilities and competencies which are an important part of developing career aspirations, academic performance and career aspirations in adolescent are often correlated (Abu-Hilal ). Immediate performance of a learner can be seen by the instructor or learner after natural and smooth completion of a sequence of learning process. Mashile E. O. in 2011 further confirmed that Grades obtained in examination indicate candidate’s ability, mastery of content and skills in applying knowledge to particular situation (Bourne, 2007).

According to Micheal, K. M. (2014) he espoused that academic performance is a key measure of school success, because high performance in school open doors to further education and to well-paying jobs. The author further stressed that for females to have the same opportunities as males in education and labour market, it is important for them to be equally well prepared academically. Authentic academic performance covers individuals’ academic abilities and skills in applying practical abilities. Academic performance refers to indicators or the interpretation of the test result which imply a comparison of sample behaviour. The comparison can be one sample behaviour with another taken at different point in time or withy that taken from another students or group of students.

On the concept of academic performance, Ebel (1979) cited in layanju, O.(2014),defines academic `performance as assessment out-come of a formal instruction in cognitive domain within a defined subject matter and is clearly taught in within an expected learning outcome. Iayanjufurther asserts that academic performance as work or function which an individual indicates as his or her abilities, motives, interest and personality traits. Thus, it predicts what an individual will archive in future. The researcher further stress that better academic performance at early stage of the school career predicts accomplishments in later stages of career as well as after leaving schools.

Concept of Career Choice/Occupational Aspiration

The National Vocational Guidance Association and the American Vocational Association having jointly defined career development as “the total constellation of psychological, sociological, educational physical, economic and chance factors that combine to shape the career of any given individual.” Career life planning focuses on a significant number of factors that influence career choice. It involves setting of priorities and goals for career life planning, developing ultimate designs and setting long range and short term goals and major choice objectives.

Career choice and selection is one of many important choices students will make in determining their future plans and this decision will impact on them throughout their lives (Borchert, 2002). In his research paper, Borchert observed that several factors influenced career choices of high school students. Identifying these factors would give parents, educators, and industry an idea as to where students place most of their trust in the career selection process. These factors include the students‟ immediate Environment, Opportunities available to the student and finally his/her Personality. He further observed that every student carries the unique history of their past and this determines how they view the world. This history is created in parts, by the student‟s environment, personality, and opportunity. Consequently, how a student perceives his/her environment, personality, and opportunity will determine the career choices that the student makes. Some factorss have be pronounced to affect career choice by secondary school student including family influence and parenting style.

FAMILY INFLUENCES AS DETERMINANT OF CAREER PATH

According to Herbart (2006) home with healthy environment are essential for evolving abilities to heights, close to capacity heights. This is because teenagers raised in homes with a healthy environment where parents live in harmony with other family members, are bound to make a well informed career decision, as the family tend to speak in agreement concerning how he/she makes her choice while also giving them the necessary moral support to succeed. According to Sear and Gordon‟s (2002), additional aspects of one‟s family background can be influential in career decision making. In recent years, efforts have been made to probe the impact of different relations (i.e. parents, siblings, peer group, guardians, teachers, friends, etc) on career selection. For instance, prominent siblings are thought to play a key part in the career direction of teenagers from lower socioeconomic backgrounds as these teenagers hold them (siblings) as their role models (Ali, McWhirter, and Chronister, 2005). In previous studies, various relationship perspectives have been explored in context of career choice. For example, authors have identified the impact of parental occupation on their children‟s career preferences (Stone & Wang, 1990). Similarly, authors have identified the inspirational impact of parental education on their children career choice (Jones & Larke, 2001; Monica & Kate, 2005). In this regard, Jones & Larke (2001) found that parents with high level of education can better influence career decisions of their children. Likewise, Monica and Kate (2005) found influence of parental education and their personal career as strong motivators to their children in career selection. In similar tune, numbers of researchers have confirmed strong influence of parents, guardians, teachers and friends on career choice (Dick & Rallis, 1991; Esters & Bowen, 2005; Fisher & Griggs, 1995; Fouad et al., 2008; Lent & Brown, 1996; Mutekwe, et al., 2011). In a report published in the Eric Digest No. 164, Lankard (1995) observes that young people from many of their attitudes about work and careers as a result of interactions with the family. Mortimer et al. (1992) noted that the family background provides the basis from which their career plans and decision making evolve. However, within each family, the level of involvement can vary, offering both positive and negative influences.

Conce of Parenting

When a child is born into a family, such a child is helpless and needs the help of others to get on. These others are usually the members of the family or the caregivers. The major caregivers are usually the parents. The word ‘parent’ refers to the biological relationship of an adult to a child or when used as a verb, to the care and protection that adult provides (Smith, 1999). A parent is a person who fosters all facets of a child’s growth by nourishing, protecting, and guiding the child through the course of development (Eze, 2002). Operationally, a parent is one who has the duty of transferring values, norms and experiences that could influence the adolescent in the society because parents exert the first influence on the children’s life before any other factor. Thus, parent shape the character and personality of its siblings through the process of parenting. Okpoko (2004) and Utti (2006) defined parenting as the act of parenthood, child upbringing, training, rearing or child education. Olsen & Defrain (2000) defined parenting as the process of raising adolescent from infant to adulthood who will provide continuity within the family for years to come. Parenting is described as a constellation of attitudes toward the child that are communicated to the child and that, taken together, create an emotional climate in which the parent’s behaviour is expressed (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). The quality of parenting is more essential than the quantity of time spent with the child. For instance a parent can spend the entire afternoon with his or her child but the parent may be engaging in a different activity and not demonstrating interest towards the child. Operationally, parenting is the act of moulding, shaping, guiding and supporting the development of an individual from infant to adulthood.

Concept of Parenting Style

Parenting is carried out differently by individuals because of differences in personalities and exposure, giving rise to different parenting styles.Parenting style is a universal climate in which families function and in which child rearing behaviour of parents or other primary caregivers revolve (Chiew, 2011). Kelland (2000) observe that where an ideal parenting style is employed in the home, the children are disciplined but where this is not, the reverse is the case.Though, Children go through different stages in life; therefore parents create their own parenting styles from a combination of factors that evolve over time as children begin to develop their own personalities. In the context of this study, Parenting styles are the representation of how parents respond to the demands of their children.

Types of Parenting Style

Many authors have presented different forms of parenting styles but for the purpose of this study, the researcher is adopting Baumrind (1973) parenting styles which include authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved.

Parenting style focuses on two major elements of parenting: parental responsiveness and parental demandingness (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Parental responsiveness (parental warmth or supportiveness) refers to the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and acquiescent to children’s special needs and demands (Baumrind, 1991). Parental demandingness, on the other hand also referred to as behavioral control refers to the claims parents make on children to become integrated into the family, by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to confront the child who disobeys (Baumrind, 1991).

Authoritative parenting style offers a balance of warmth and control and emphasizes on reasoning and communication between parents and children (Mandara, 2006). Authoritarian parents on the other hand, are strictly unbending and inflexible. They may try to control every aspects of their child’s life and do not allow the child to make choices. Authoritarian parents expect obedience without questioning. They may use harsh disciplinary method on their children and may be insensitive to their children’s emotional needs. Authoritarian parenting style is restrictive, directive, highly demanding and not responsive to the needs and demands of children (Ang & Goh, 2006). They do not often explain reasons behind the rules that they set and impose their consequences whenever a rule is broken. The use of punitive and forceful measure to enforce proper behaviour causes anger, resentment and deceit, and impairs parent – child relationship. (Sailor, 2010).

Permissive parenting style is high on responsiveness and low on demandingness. Permissive parents rarely enforce rules for their children to follow. They are different from authoritarian parents as they practice high level of nurturance and clarity of communication while exercising low level of control and maturity demands (Sarac, 2011). These parents are indulgent, not wanting to impose their will on their children. They might cause their children to avoid even natural or logical consequences in order to save them from perceived harm, unhappiness or hurt. Permissive parents are usually kind and loving, may become frustrated when a child’s behaviour is deviant or unacceptable.

Despite this frustration, permissive parents do not often step into, or cause change in the child’s action as long as he will not be physically harmed. Permissive parents encourage autonomy and decision making by their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations and self control. Permissive parents are more responsive than they are demanding. They are nontraditional and lenient. Research links permissive parents with delinquency, substance abuse, and sexual activity (Sailor, 2010). However, the result of one study revealed that permissive parenting style sometimes called indulgent parenting style is the optimum style in Spain (Mandara, 2006). There is the probability of this parenting style influencing achievement orientation and academic achievement of secondary school students. This is because parents are the major influence in their children’s lives. Thus, their perception of how children think, and are to be raised is crucial in determining children’s achievement orientation and academic achievement.

PARENTING STYLE AND ITS INFLUENCES OF CAREER PATH

Parental STYLESs, behaviors and actions in relative to their children education has a substantially impact on children’ learning and educational achievement. It directly leads to put together an environmental understanding of child development to indicate how individuals, families, schools and communities act together through the educational procedure and how to contribute in different ways to children learning outcomes.

Parents play a fundamental role in the shaping of personality and the Childs’ intellectually development of children education. They play an important role as a stakeholder so their style of natural parenting and mutual relationship between themselves and their children have the abilities to impact their cognition and learning capabilities at the premature stages of their children’s lives.Parents’ positive attitude help children to go ahead in the continuity of education for meeting the demands of the society, but their passive attitude can cause for lower grading their academic achievements.Douglas (1970) emphasizes that middle-class parents take more interest in their children’s education than the manual working-class parents; adding that the most striking difference is that most middle class fathers visit the school to discuss their children’s progress whereas manual working-class ones seldom do. Douglas went further to explain that parents are said to show a high level of interest if the teachers regard them throughout the primary school period as very interested in their children’s work. Furthermore, he points out that within each social class, parents who give their children most encouragement in their school work also give them the best care in infancy. But this is best shown by the middle class more than the manual working class. In the same vein, Kat Korsky, Preston and Crandail (1964) showed that parents’ orientation towards their own achievement may impact on their behaviours with children. Katkorsky, et al (1964) also mentioned that the greater the value both mothers and fathers placed on intellectual achievement for their offspring the better their children’s performance academically.

Gonzalez-DeHass et al. (2005) argued that when parents are involved in their children’s schools, academic motivation and achievement increase. Students’ interest in learning, competence, and understanding of a subject area, improves and promotes student achievement. Bocock (1980) states that pupils from poor homes usually do not perform well academically because their parents find it difficult to provide a learning and teaching materials, nutritious food, clothes etc. for them but pupils from good socio economic background have parents who read to help them, help them with their homework, show interest in their education and provide them with all the necessities of life to enhance their performance in school. Pupil from good socio-economic background has parents who put pressure on them to study and monitor their progress in school. Unlike peoples from good home, parents of pupils from poor home involve them in trading and farming activities and do not have time for studies and so perform poorly at schools. Bocock (1988). According to Datcher Lourl (1988), pupils from homes of well-educated peoples are motivated to perform well in school, unlike pupils from illiterates. According to Agyemang (1986) middle and upper socio economic families provide a congenial learning atmosphere for their children at home by providing them with books, toys and other educational facilities. To him these give the children of middle and upper class families an urge over those of lower class families. A child whose parents cannot provide him with uniform may feel embarrassed among his mates. In some it could be said that the socio-economic status of parents can directly affect the academic performance of their children.

In addition Karback, (1989) opined that the more favourable adolescents perceived their parents behaviour towards them, the more they are likely to perform successfully in school. The style of parenting adopted in different homes affects the adolescent’s disposition. This can be to the development of an adolescent or to the detriment of his or her academic achievement. From the foregoing, the importance of positive parenting, warm home climate and child acceptance in students’ academic achievement cannot be over-emphasized.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework of this study hinges on Baumrind’s Parenting Typology and John Williams Atkinson’s Need Achievement Theory.

Baumrind’s Parenting Typology (1967)

Baumrind’s parenting typology was propounded by Diana Baumrind in the year 1967. The author postulated that differences in parenting styles accounted for the way children functioned socially, emotionally and cognitively. According to the author, four elements that could help shape successful parenting exist. This includes responsiveness vs. unresponsiveness and demanding vs. undemanding. The author went on to identify three parenting styles, which includes authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting, and permissive parenting.

Authoritative parenting style is an ideal parenting style, which is characterized by a child-centered approach. Authoritative parents direct the child’s activities in a rational Page 37 26 issue oriented manner. They exert some control over their children but also set high standards for future conduct. They usually made them to set clear expectation for their children, they monitor their children behaviour, use discipline based on reasoning and encourage their children to make decisions and learn from their mistakes. They exercise high warmth positive/assertive control/ demandingness but also high in supports and responsiveness, treating their children with kindness, respect and affection. They often help their children to be independent but still place limits on their actions. They usually allow their child to explore more freely, thus having them make their own decisions based upon their own reasoning. Punishments for misbehavior are measured and consistent, not arbitrary or violent. Often, behaviours are not punished but the natural consequences of the child’s actions are explored and discussed-allowing the child to see the behaviour as inappropriate and not to be repeated rather than not repeated to merely avoid adverse consequences. They also tend to give more positive encouragement at the right place. However, when punishing a child, the parents will explain his or her motive for the punishment. As a result, children of authoritative parents are more likely to be successful, well liked by those around them, generous, more confident, more autonomous, (highly disciplined) more socially responsible and capable of self determination. Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive, punishment heavy parenting style in which parents makes their children follow directions with little or no explanation. Authoritarian parenting involves low parental responsiveness and high parental demand; the parents set rigid rules and also demand obedience without explanation and focus on status. Authoritarian parents use corporal punishment and yelling as form of discipline. Page 38 27 However, children resulting from their type of parenting may have less social competence because the parent generally tells the child what to do instead of allowing the child to choose by him or herself. They lack the warmth of the authoritative parent and may seem aloof to their children. They are also tending to conform highly obedient, quiet but moody and anxious. They usually suffer from depression and self blame. Thus, such children as soon as they reach the age of adolescent, rebellion are common. Permissive Parenting/Indulgent parenting is also called permissive, non-directive or lenient parenting style. Indulgent parenting is a style of parenting in which parents are very involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. Parents present themselves to the child as a resource for him to use as he wishes, not as an ideal for him to emulate, or as an active agent responsible for shaping or altering his ongoing or future behaviour. A child under indulgent parenting regulate his own activities as much as possible, avoid the exercise of control and is not encouraged to obey externally defined standard. Permissive parents try to be friendly with their children and do not play a parental role. The expectations of the child are very low, and there is little discipline. This type of parenting is very lax, with few punishment or rules. Children of permissive parents may tend to be more impulsive as a result of misconduct or exhibition of antisocial behaviours, poor emotional regulation, rebellion and defiant when desires are challenged and low persistence to challenging task. The Baumrind’s parenting typology has identified three parenting styles which variously spelt out the contributions of parents to the upbringing of a child and consequences of bringing up a child in such manner. This typology is of great importance to this study as it tends to examine the influence of parenting styles on children.

• J. W. Atkinson’s Achievement Need Theory (1968)

The theory posited that orientation results from achieving success and avoiding failure and that the motive to achieve success is determined by three things: (1) the need to succeed or need achievement; (2) the person’s estimate of the likelihood of success in performing the particular task; (3) the incentives for success, that is, how much the person wants to succeed in that particular task, good standard, realizable goals, motivational incentives and others. This will help the children achieve higher success in their academic work. According to Atkinson, (1968) when an individual is actively involved in a task, he sets himself a standard to conquer. This standard is called the level of achievement. Level of achievement is longing for what is above one, with advancement as its goal. This achievement has to do with the desire to improve or to rise above one’s present status. A learner’s level of achievement may be high especially if he had just succeeded, or it may be low if he had just met with failure. Achievement varies not only in strength but also in kind. It may be positive or negative. Positive achievement has to do with winning success or doing better than one has done before. Negative achievement has to do with avoiding failure. Achievement may also be described as unrealistic especially when it is informed by limited knowledge and experience or inadequate assessment of opportunities available in the learning environment for its attainment. Some achievements relate to what the learner wants to be or the ideal self-concept’ while others relate to what the learner wants to accomplish. There are two sets of factors, which interact to determine the level of achievement. They are the personal factors, and the cultural and environmental factors. Page 40 29 Personal factors relate to such personality traits as intelligence, interest, gender, selfconcept, activity level, socio-economic status and previous training experiences. Cultural and environmental factors include parental ambition, social values and social reinforcement. The average standard of one’s own group or class will affect the individual’s level of achievement. Some environmental factors encourage the development of immediate achievements (today-tomorrow or immediate gratification of needs) while others encourage the development of future perspectives or remote achievements. Some foster positive achievements while other foster negative achievements. Some motivate the child to be realistic, and others, unrealistic. Part of the duty of the teacher is to create learning environment conditions that will help learners adequately assess their abilities and opportunities available so they can set realistic and attainable goals. In this way learners will experience successes in school activities and thereby build positive self-concept which enhances need achievement motive. This theory is of relevance to the present study because the present study seeks to examine how parenting styles can influence achievement orientation and academic achievement of in-school adolescent. Thus the theory posited that orientation results from achieving success and avoiding failure.

2.3 EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Research worldwide shows that parenting styles influences post school outcomes of adolescents. Bukaliya and Mapuranga’s (2015) study sought to unearth effects of child rearing practices on child academic performance among learners in primary schools in Marondera, Zimbabwe. The qualitative study used 30 participants (10 pupils, 25 teachers and 5 parents) purposively selected. Interviews and observations were used to generate data. The study found that the most parenting styles used were permissive and neglectful. Recommendations were that workshops and campaigns should be conducted to educate parents, teachers and learners of different parenting styles and their effects. In addition, the Ministry of Education should ensure councilors are available in schools to advise parents on child rearing practices that promote career development.Although the methodology was similar, the 2015 study focused on learners in primary schools while this study focuses on families of youths with IDs, their children (youths) and lecturers. Rani (2014) reviewed literature on the impact of parenting styles on career development of adolescents in Tirupathi, Chitoor District, Andra Pradesh focusing on three parenting styles(Authoritative, Authoritarian and Permissive). The review indicated that parenting styles play an important role in career development of adolescents. The study concludes that when planning, parents should acknowledge the immense influence they have on their children’s career development. It notes that parents can also use their roles to the advantage of their children’s career development.

A critique on Rani’s (2014) study shows that itwas merely a review of literaturewhile the current study uses a phenomenological study design on a purposively selected sample to determine how parenting styles influence career development of youths with IDs. Halit (2013) examined the relationship between parenting styles with career interests of students at an elite school in Setiu District, Terengganu. The study population consisted of all form four students (16 years old). The sample comprised 88 students (35 boys and 53 girls) purposively selected. Two theoretical approaches by Holland (1973) and Baumrind (1991) were used. The Self-Directed Search (SDS) was used to investigate the students' career interests and the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) by Baumrind's (1971) was used to measure parental nurturing styles. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis and Pearson correlation analysis of inferential statistics. Results showed a significant relationship between parenting styles with career interests. The currentphenomenological study on parents of youths with IDs in skills training institutions uses interview schedules, observations and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) to collect data. What is of concern is how parenting styles translate into career development of youths with IDs.

A study was carried out by Yusuf, Agbonna and Yusuf (2013), on the influence of parenting styles on junior secondary school students’ performance in social studies in Ilorin Emirates, Nigeria. The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of parenting styles on junior secondary school students’ performance in social studies. The design of the study was ex-post facto. The population of the study was all junior social studies students in Ilorin Metropolis. Three research questions and three research Page 46 35 hypotheses were used. The study used questionnaire and Performa to collect data on parenting styles and students’ performance. The data on junior school certificate and parenting styles were analyzed using frequency count, percentages and chi – square to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses in the study. The result showed that parenting styles adopted had influence on the performance of the students. In addition, it was observed that students from authoritative parenting had better performance than students from other parenting styles. It was recommended among others that parents should adopt authoritative parenting style to enhance optimal performance of the students. In addition, the school should create structures and strengthen the existing ones that would provide parent training intervention. The present study is related with the above study in the area of parenting styles and academic achievement but differs in the sense that the above study dealt with Junior Secondary School while the present deals with Senior Secondary School.