THE PERCEPTION OF TEACHERS ON THE EFFECT OF DIVORCE ON THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF A CHILD
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents the review of related literature under the following sub-headings conceptual framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies and summary of literature review.
Conceptual Framework
> Concept of Marriage
> Concept Marriage Institution
> Concept of Divorce
> Concept of Achievement
> Concept of Academic Achievement
> Concept of Secondary Education
Theoretical Framework
> Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura, 1977)
> Attribution Theory (Heider, 1980)
Review of Empirical Studies
> Study on Divorce and Academic Achievement
> Study on Divorce and Emotional Stability
> Study on Factors Associated with Divorce among Couples
> Study on the Effects of Divorce on the Academic Achievement
Concept of Marriage
The term marriage refers to the union of man and woman as husband and wife. In the opinion of Ofoegbu (2002), marriage is an arrangement of social structure which results in the establishment of a relationship of a legal, customary or religious between man and his wife for the propagation of the family root through procreation and the sharing in various degrees of other acceptable relationship norms. Ofoegbu further stressed that marriages are contracted to provide the basis for love and companionship, bearing of children and fulfillment of couple expectations.
Marriage is as old as human life on earth Bhatti (2003) asserted that marriage is an enduring relationship between an adult male and female, as two individual units, known as husband and wife. This explanation or model of marriage is based on the social-cultural premises of marriage as they are ingrained in the social system of the spouses. Similarly, Juvva and Bhatti (2006) maintained that marriage and family is an organized form of living that does not exist among other living beings, except among the human races and as a result, marriage and family constitute the basic and essential unit of society.
Marriages is a union between the opposite sexes and do not include same sex marriage as it is commonly practiced in some developed countries. This is because marriages between same man and woman that are permitted in many societies are considered as taboos or abomination in many African countries (Odebunmi, 2007).
In the opinions of Eneh and Nom (1996), when couples who have ulterior motives other than the divine purpose for procreation and training of children failed to achieve their goals, their desires would be geared towards divorce.
Marriage is considered to be a very important institution in global world. In collaboration with the above view, Okon, Oyira, Tella and Tella (2008) opined that marriage as one of the oldest institutions is highly valued and as a result parents begin to show so much anxiety and worries when their daughters and sons who have attained the age of marriage have not been able to marry. This point tends to emphasize the place of cultural value for marriage as a social institution that is highly cherished and preserved as a means of perpetuating human race.
Compatibility is an important element of marriage where couples live or work together without conflict. Where there is no compatibility, the marriage becomes unhappy and unsuccessful. However, in some marriages, these potentials are lacked due to the fact that couples were unable to solve their marital problems (Eneh and Nom, 1996). These problems may be different in goals, financial difficulties or poor sexual relationship. In such a case, the idea of compatibility is then thrown away. The new idea is then that of incompatibility, ushering in divorce as the final solution.
From the above definition, it could be inferred that marriage serves several purposes in the life of the individual as well as in the society. For example, in the African context, according to Odebunmi (2007).
Marriage as an institution is respected by societies in Africa. When a man or woman reaches the mature age, he or she is expected to marry. If the individual, for a reason refuses to marry at this expected period he or she is not respected in many societies in Africa. This is because of the emphasis Africans place on procreation. Most Africans view procreation as a way to keep God’s request that we should multiply. Without a child individuals are not given proper recognition, and hence they are not respectable in the society p.78.
Concept of Marriage Institution
Marriage institution is an officially and documented union accepted by a civil or religious convention amongst two people who are compatible as husband and wife. Nwobi (2002) defined marriage institution as a legally recognized bond, established by a civil or religious ceremony, between two people who anticipate living together as sexual and domestic partners. Marriage institution is a legally recognized relationship, established by a civil or religious ceremony, between two people who intend to live together as husband and wife.
Concept of Divorce
Divorce as a social phenomenon is an important research social problem in sociology. Divorce is the absolute dissolution of the marriage institution that revokes the authorized duties and responsibilities of the marriage institution. It
dissolves all the bonds of matrimony between the parties concerned. Divorce according to Wallerstein (2005) is a family break up characterized with numerous problems. It is a product of unsuccessful marriage. Omeje (2000) defined divorce as dissolution of a marital union that cancelled all legal obligations and responsibilities of marriages as well as dissolving the bonds of matrimony between the parties. Taylor (2009) stated that divorce is a legal action and it happens when people decide not to be married to each other anymore. Taylor further stressed that divorce legally ends a marriage and people involved are free to marry other people if they want to.
Divorce is an official termination of a marriage by the decision of the court of law. Divorce laws vary considerably around the world, but in most countries it requires the sanction of a court or other authority in a legal process (Amato and Keith, 2001). The legal process of divorce may also involve issues of alimony (spousal support), child custody, child support, distribution of property, and division of debt. Where monogamy is law, divorce allows each former partner to marry another, where polygamy is legal but polyandry is not, divorce allows the woman to marry another.
The case of divorce is disheartening. It has made many marriages to loose its celebrity and splendors. According to Patterson (2008) there is no single cause for any divorce rather there are several reasons for divorce. These include lack of
communication, immaturity, infidelity/cheating, failed expectations, drug and alcohol abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, cultural and religious differences. Similarly, Nwoye (1991) asserted that:
In a typical Africa community, divorce may be due to. the woman becoming rather insubordinate to her husband, moral turpitude on the part of the woman, the woman ‘s prolonged illness, impotence on the man ‘s part, much interference from the woman ‘s relations, disagreement over religion, the woman being a thieve or tale-bearer, the man ‘s being too harsh, disagreement over conjugal right and the man failure to complete the bride payment p.39.
Divorce is more than the act of marital dissolution. It is a process often marked by instability. It is a legal act that does not always coincide with couple’s emotion tearing asunder. It is a painful experience for all concerned. Amato (2000) lamented that it is disheartening that people brought from two different familjes in affection as husbands and wives should end up in divorce.
The increase in the rate of divorce is discouraging. According to Gac (2008), there are high rates of divorce worldwide. He further stated that divorce rate has nearly quadrupled since the early 1960s. Commenting on the divorce rate, Odebunmi (2007) asserted that the rate of divorce is high in Nigeria. Similarly, Lansford (2009) held that divorce rate was not only high but
pervasive, affecting all races and age groups. In order words, divorce is a global issue and does not respect age.
In Western legal authority, Rapoport (2005) maintained that divorce (legally referred to as ‘dissolution of marriage’) does not require a party to assert fault on the part of their partner leading to the breakdown of their marriage. According to Rapoport, prior to the onset of ‘no-fault’ statues, a party would have to prove a ground, typically ‘desertion,’ ‘abandonment,’ ‘cruelty’, or ‘adultery’. The requirement of proving a ground was revised (and withdrawn) by the terms of ‘no- fault- statutes, which became popular in the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In ‘no fault’ jurisdictions, a simple, general allegation of ‘irreconcilable differences’, or ‘irretrievable break-down’ with respect to the marriage relationship, sufficed to establish the end of the marriage (Kelly, 2000:23). .The researcher further maintained that in legal authority adopting the ‘no-fault’ principle in divorce proceedings, some courts may still take into account the behaviour of the parties when dividing property, debts, evaluating custody, and support-facts that almost always have considerable weight in fault proceedings.
In most legal authorities, a divorce must be certified (or ordered by a Judge) by a court of law to come into effect. According to Jekielek (1998), the terms of the divorce are usually determine by the courts, though they may take into account
prenuptial agreements or post-nuptial agreements, or simply ratify terms that the spouses may have agreed to privately. In the opinion of Amato and Keith (2001) in the absence of agreement, a contested divorce may be stressful to the spouses. Contested divorces mean that one of several issues is required to be heard by a judge at trial level. This is more expensive, and the parties will have to pay for a lawyer’s time and preparation. Less adversarial approaches to divorce settlements have recently emerged, such as mediation and collaborative divorce settlement, which negotiate mutually acceptable resolution to conflicts. This principle in the United States is called ‘Alternative Dispute Resolution (Amato and Keith, 2001).
Concept of Achievement
Achievement is a term used to describe those things students have done successfully especially, using their own effort and skill, or with the aid of strong visual appeal and imaginations. Achievement is possibly the most difficult aspect of measuring many students’ performance. It is also the process of measuring the performance of students in terms of challenges set before the students by the teachers. According to Berlin and Heldeberg (2005), achievement is the process of reaching a required level of performance. It has to do with carrying out activities successfully. It entails meeting educational needs of students by translating curriculum into knowledge for assimilation by students. David Institute (2006) perceived that achievement is a measure of quality and quantity of success one has
in mastery of knowledge, skill or understanding. It is also the attainment of a standard of excellence (Umeano, 2010).
Concept of Academic Achievement
Academic achievement is the outcome of education. It is the extent to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their educational goals. Globe and Bishop (2001) perceive academic achievement as something one does or achieve at school, college or university, in class in a laboratory, library or field work. Pullman (2008) stated that academic achievement is the overall academic performance of student in school. It is assessed by the use of teachers rating, test and examination. According to Annie, Howard and Mildred (2006), academic achievement is commonly measured by examinations or continuous assessment, but there is no general agreement on how it is best tested or which aspects are most important.
Student’s achievement in academics is based on a number of factors. In support of the above statement, Von, Hell, Chamorro and Tomas (2011) stated that students with higher mental ability as demonstrated by IQ tests (quick learners) and those who are higher in conscientiousness (linked to effort and achievement motivation) tend to achieve highly in academic settings. In addition, the researchers further maintained that mental curiosity (as measured by typical intellectual engagement) has an important influence on academic achievement.
This entails that individual difference in academic performance have been linked to difference in intelligence and personality.
There are several mechanisms through which the legal dissolution of marriage may affect the academic achievement of students. Amato (2001) maintained that children from divorced families tend to do less well in school than children from non-divorced families. According to the researcher, divorce leads to potential reductions in both the quality and quantity of parental education inputs, parental guidance and this affect the academic achievement of students. Similarly, Strohschein (2005) submitted that divorce is associated with numerous outcomes in children’s lives, one of which is academic achievement.
Parents are indispensable resources for children. They provide emotional support to them and give advice to them in problems. Tillman (2007) maintained that children who have great affection with their parents are faced with depression as a result of their parents’ divorce; they were emotionally disturbed and did less well at school. Similarly, Sun and Li (2012) submitted that children of divorced parents were usually not having a good relationship with their parents as compared to the children whose parents would stay together; their parents attend fewer school events, and were less likely to do things or discuss school-related issues with their children and this affects their children academic achievement.
Divorce influences everyone, most notably the children. Children being sensitive young people are always affected by the divorced of their parents. These effects are invariably felt most acutely in an educational setting. School is a hot bed of hormones and emotions, and as such, children reveal their true feelings most openly through their behaviours and efforts in school. Lansford (2009) stated that the overall stress of the change in family structure may also distract a child from school activities and consequently, affects his or her academic achievement.
Concept of Secondary Education
Secondary education is the type of school which a child receives after primary education and before tertiary education. Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) believed that secondary education is the education received by children after primary education and before entering into tertiary level. Furthermore, they said that it is splinted into two phases: three years of junior secondary (JSS) and three years of senior secondary (SSS). Ogbonnaya (2009) opined that in secondary education, there are public and private secondary schools. He maintained that public secondary schools are schools that are owned and funded by government while private secondary schools are schools owned and funded by individuals.
One can therefore quickly deduce that public secondary schools are those secondary schools that are owned and maintained by the government for the benefit of her citizens. The nature of public secondary school offers opportunity to
the masses to have access to education. Through the establishment of public secondary education, the government is responding to the right of each child to be educated; thereby making education accessible to all.
According to section 15 of the Child’s Right Act, a Nigerian child should have access to a good, quality and reasonable level of education. Public schools are heavily subsidized to make this need for all to be educated possible. For example, in Imo state the whole of junior secondary school (JSS) is free while students are allowed to pay N1,000 only as tuition fee per term throughout the senior secondary school (SSS). Students in public secondary schools because of this opportunity are more in number thereby forming the bulk of the nation’s human investment. This means that the condition of a nation’s public schools determines the future of such a nation. A society that does not manage its educational sector properly is preparing to increase the level of illiteracy, mediocrity, poverty and chaos in future.
Theoretical Framework Social Learning Theory
This theory was propounded by Albert Bandura (1977). Social learning theory provides extremely useful ways of understanding how developmental changes in behaviour and thinking occur and, for, some children, why behavioral problems arise. Bandura’s theory also added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviours by watching other people. This is known as observational learning (or modeling) and it can be used to explain wide variety of behaviours. Social learning theory emphasizes that learning is accomplished by observing others without any direct or personal reinforcement or any opportunity for practice. The author is of the view that all that is required for personality to develop is for the person to observe another individual and take that individual as a model. A model simply means anyone who demonstrates a behaviour that others observe. There are three core concepts of social learning theory. Firstly, the idea that people can learn through observation. Secondly, the ideas that internal mental state is an essential part of this process. Lastly, the theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behaviours. Bandura also noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behaviour. Also, the theory added that not all observed behaviours are effectively learned, that factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role where social learning is successful.
The relevance of Bandura’s social learning theory to this study is that it will both the teachers and parents through modeling behaviour, they will be able to adopt appropriate ways in dealing with children from divorced homes in their academic achievement. Also, other classroom strategies such as encouraging students, building self-esteem and building self-efficacy and student’s motivation are also rooted in social learning theory. The present study therefore is going to be based on the social learning theory.
Attribution Theory
The attribution theory was propounded by Heider (1980). Attribution refers to the process by which individuals interpret events as being caused by particular aspects of behaviour in the setting around them. It is a judgment about the causes of another person’s behaviour. Attribution theory is concerned with the effects on behaviour due to such “causal thinking”. According to Heider, behaviour can be accounted for by two classes of factors-personal or internal forces and environmental or external forces. The important internal factors are skill or ability and effort, luck and task difficulty are the important external forces. The assumption that a person’s behaviour is determined by internal causes or forces such as effort is termed dispositional attribution, while a person’s behaviour which is determined by external circumstances such as social pressures, is termed situational attribution. Heider also pointed out that whether a person feels that his or her behaviour was self-controlled or controlled by events in the situation, there will be profound effects on such an individual’s future behaviour.
Based on the attribution theory, a student whose emotional scarring left by divorce influences his or her academic achievement can be assisted by the teacher by using the external or environmental factors such as instructional materials to coordinate the student’s desire for behaviour modification. This theory therefore is related to the present study.
Review of Empirical Studies
This section reviews studies carried out in areas related to the present study. Mark (2009) carried out a study on the effects of near and actual parental divorce on student achievement and misbehavior in Pittsburgh. The main purpose of the study was to verify the effects of near and actual parental divorce on student achievement and misbehavior. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The population of the study consists of 1530 secondary school teachers and students. The study was guided by three research questions and three null hypotheses. Using simple random sampling technique, 150 teachers and 150 students were selected for the study. Questionnaire was used to collect data; mean score and standard deviation were employed for data analysis, while t-test was used to test the null hypotheses.
The findings include that, children whose parents divorced experience worse outcome than children from two-parent families. It reveals steady declines in achievement and steady increases in misbehaviour after parental divorce relative to children from two-parent families. These declines capture the causal effect of parental divorce under the assumption that the only factor that changed the trajectories of children at the time of divorce was the parental divorce. However,
the suggestions that post-divorce declines in children performance are likely due to the factors that caused the parents to divorce rather than to the legal dissolution of marriage itself.
This study is related to the on-going research study. While Mark’s study centered on the effects of near and actual parental divorce on student achievement and misbehavior in Pittsburgh, the on-going study is on the influence of divorce on academic achievement of secondary schools students in Enugu State. Hence, both studies centre on the influence of divorce on students academic achievement. Ushie, Emeka, Ononga and Owolabi (2012) conducted a research on the influence of family structure on student’s academic performance in Agege local government area, Lagos State, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The population of the study consists of 11,146 secondary school teachers and students. The stratified sampling technique was used to select 114 students from five public schools. Also, data on students’ academic performance was obtained from their scores in four selected subjects of English, mathematics, economics and biology. Data obtained were analyzed using cross tabulation, tables, simple percentages, independent samples test and Multinomial Logistic Regression (MLR) and the t- test. The t-test result showed that there is no significant difference in the academic performance of students from single parent families and those from two parent
families (p > 0.05), while the MLR result revealed that parental socioeconomic background significantly influenced student’s academic performance (p<0.05).
The findings include that family structure did not determine student’s academic performance, but parental socioeconomic background; because, irrespective of the family structure, students whose parents have better jobs and higher levels of income tend of have higher levels of literacy performance.
The study is related to the ongoing study in that; it investigated the influence of family structure on student’s academic performance in Agege local government area. The present study focuses on the influence of divorce on academic achievement of secondary schools students in Enugu State. Both studies are related for the reasons that both centre on students academic achievement.
Nwobodo (1997) conducted a research on factors associated with divorce among couples in public service in Enugu State; and its implication for family counseling. The purpose of the study was to investigate the factors that are associated with divorce among couples in public service of Enugu State and its implication for family counseling. The design of the study was a survey. Four research questions and four hypotheses guided the study. Total samples of 1,242 couples from Enugu State were selected from a population of 6,526 couples using disproportionate stratified random sampling technique. Questionnaire with a four-point rating scale was the instrument used to collect data for the study. The data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and t-test statistics.
White and Martin (2002) carried out a study on the effects of divorce on the academic achievement of third grade elementary school students in Northwest Tennessee. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of divorce on the academic achievement of third grade elementary school students. Ex-post factor design was used. The population of the study consisted of 20, third grade elementary school students from rural Northwest Tennessee. Using the Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP) to determine how well students perform prior to the divorce, the students was administered the text. Scores from TCAP families were used prior to the divorce and compared to TCAP scores made after the divorce. Scores made by TCAP children from the intact families in second and third grade were compared to pre-divorce and post-divorce scores made by children of divorce.
The findings revealed among others that there were significant differences in the subject area scores on the TCAP, Children of divorce scored significantly lower than children from intact families. The study is related to the present study because, it investigated on the effects of divorce on the academic achievement of third grade elementary school students. The present study will determine the influence of divorce on academic achievement of secondary schools students in Enugu State. Both studies are related because both centre on the impact of divorce on academic achievement of students.